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Guide to Understanding Sail Rig Types (with Pictures)

There are a lot of different sail rig types and it can be difficult to remember what's what. So I've come up with a system. Let me explain it in this article.

What are the different types of sail rig? The sail rig is determined by the number of masts and the layout and shape of sails. Most modern ships are fore-and-aft rigged, while old ships are square-rigged. Rigs with one mast are sloops and cutters. Ketches, yawls, brigs, and schooners have two masts. Barques have three masts. Rigs can contain up to seven masts.

'Yeah, that's a gaff brig, and that a Bermuda cutter' - If you don't know what this means (neither did I) and want to know what to call a two-masted ship with a square-rigged mainsail, this article is definitely for you.

On this page:

More info on sail rig types, mast configurations and rig types, rigs with one mast, rigs with two masts, rigs with three masts, related questions.

This article is part 2 of my series on sails and rig types. Part 1 is all about the different types of sails. If you want to know everything there is to know about sails once and for all, I really recommend you read it. It gives a good overview of sail types and is easy to understand.

The Ultimate Guide to Sail Types and Rigs (with Pictures)

First of all, what is a sail rig? A sail rig is the way in which the sails are attached to the mast(s). In other words, it's the setup or configuration of the sailboat. The rig consists of the sail and mast hardware. The sail rig and sail type are both part of the sail plan. We usually use the sail rig type to refer to the type of boat.

Let's start by taking a look at the most commonly used modern sail rigs. Don't worry if you don't exactly understand what's going on. At the end of this article, you'll understand everything about rig types.

The sail rig and sail plan are often used interchangeably. When we talk of the sail rig we usually mean the sail plan . Although they are not quite the same. A sail plan is the set of drawings by the naval architect that shows the different combinations of sails and how they are set up for different weather conditions. For example a light air sail plan, storm sail plan, and the working sail plan (which is used most of the time).

So let's take a look at the three things that make up the sail plan.

The 3 things that make up the sail plan

I want to do a quick recap of my previous article. A sail plan is made up of:

• Mast configuration - refers to the number of masts and where they are placed
• Sail type - refers to the sail shape and functionality
• Rig type - refers to the way these sails are set up on your boat

I'll explore the most common rig types in detail later in this post. I've also added pictures to learn to recognize them more easily. ( Click here to skip to the section with pictures ).

How to recognize the sail plan?

So how do you know what kind of boat you're dealing with? If you want to determine what the rig type of a boat is, you need to look at these three things:

• Check the number of masts, and how they are set up.
• You look at the type of sails used (the shape of the sails, how many there are, and what functionality they have).
• And you have to determine the rig type, which means the way the sails are set up.

Below I'll explain each of these factors in more detail.

The most common rig types on sailboats

To give you an idea of the most-used sail rigs, I'll quickly summarize some sail plans below and mention the three things that make up their sail plan.

• Bermuda sloop - one mast, one mainsail, one headsail, fore-and-aft rigged
• Gaff cutter - one mast, one mainsail, two staysails, fore-and-aft rigged
• Gaff schooner - two-masted (foremast), two mainsails, staysails, fore-and-aft rigged
• Gaff ketch - two-masted (mizzen), two mainsails, staysails, fore-and-aft rigged
• Full-rigged ship or tall ship - three or more masts, mainsail on each mast, staysails, square-rigged

The first word is the shape and rigging of the mainsail. So this is the way the sail is attached to the mast. I'll go into this later on. The second word refers to the mast setup and amount of sails used.

Most sailboats are Bermuda sloops. Gaff-rigged sails are mostly found on older, classic boats. Square-rigged sails are generally not used anymore.

But first I want to discuss the three factors that make up the sail plan in more detail.

Ways to rig sails

There are basically two ways to rig sails:

• From side to side, called Square-rigged sails - the classic pirate sails
• From front to back, called Fore-and-aft rigged sails - the modern sail rig

Almost all boats are fore-and-aft rigged nowadays.

Square sails are good for running downwind, but they're pretty useless when you're on an upwind tack. These sails were used on Viking longships, for example. Their boats were quicker downwind than the boats with fore-and-aft rigged sails, but they didn't handle as well.

The Arabs first used fore-and-aft rigged sails, making them quicker in difficult wind conditions.

Quick recap from part 1: the reason most boats are fore-and-aft rigged today is the increased maneuverability of this configuration. A square-rigged ship is only good for downwind runs, but a fore-and-aft rigged ship can sail close to the wind, using the lift to move forward.

The way the sails are attached to the mast determines the shape of the sail. The square-rigged sails are always attached the same way to the mast. The fore-and-aft rig, however, has a lot of variations.

The three main sail rigs are:

• Bermuda rig - most used - has a three-sided (triangular) mainsail
• Gaff rig - has a four-sided mainsail, the head of the mainsail is guided by a gaff
• Lateen rig - has a three-sided (triangular) mainsail on a long yard

The Bermuda is the most used, the gaff is a bit old-fashioned, and the lateen rig is outdated (about a thousand years). Lateen rigs were used by the Moors. The Bermuda rig is actually based on the Lateen rig (the Dutch got inspired by the Moors).

Other rig types that are not very common anymore are:

• Junk rig - has horizontal battens to control the sail
• Settee rig - Lateen with the front corner cut off
• Crabclaw rig

Mast configuration

Okay, we know the shape of the mainsail. Now it's time to take a look at the mast configuration. The first thing is the number of masts:

• one-masted boats
• two-masted boats
• three-masted boats
• four masts or up
• full or ship-rigged boats - also called 'ships' or 'tall ships'

I've briefly mentioned the one and two mast configurations in part 1 of this article. In this part, I'll also go over the three-masted configurations, and the tall ships as well.

A boat with one mast has a straightforward configuration because there's just one mast. You can choose to carry more sails or less, but that's about it.

A boat with two masts or more gets interesting. When you add a mast, it means you have to decide where to put the extra mast: in front, or in back of the mainmast. You can also choose whether or not the extra mast will carry an extra mainsail. The placement and size of the extra mast are important in determining what kind of boat we're dealing with. So you start by locating the largest mast, which is always the mainmast.

From front to back: the first mast is called the foremast. The middle mast is called the mainmast. And the rear mast is called the mizzenmast.

What is the mizzenmast? The mizzenmast is the aft-most (rear) mast on a sailboat with three or more masts or the mast behind the mainmast on a boat with two masts. The mizzenmast carries the mizzen sail. On a two-masted boat, the mizzenmast is always (slightly) smaller than the mainmast. What is the purpose of the mizzen sail? The mizzen sail provides more sail area and flexibility in sail plan. It can be used as a big wind rudder, helping the sailor to have more control over the stern of the ship. It pushes the stern away from the wind and forces the bow in the opposite way. This may help to bring the bow into the wind when at anchor.

I always look at the number of masts first, because this is the easiest to spot. So to make this stuff more easy to understand, I've divided up the rig types based on the number of masts below.

Why would you want more masts and sail anyways?

Good question. The biggest advantage of two masts compared to one (let's say a ketch compared to a sloop), is that it allows you to use multiple smaller sails to get the same sail area. It also allows for shorter masts.

This means you reduce the stress on the rigging and the masts, which makes the ketch rig safer and less prone to wear and tear. It also doesn't capsize as quickly. So there are a couple of real advantages of a ketch rig over a sloop rig.

In the case of one mast, we look at the number of sails it carries.

Boats with one mast can have either one sail, two sails, or three or more sails.

Most single-masted boats are sloops, which means one mast with two sails (mainsail + headsail). The extra sail increases maneuverability. The mainsail gives you control over the stern, while the headsail gives you control over the bow.

Sailor tip: you steer a boat using its sails, not using its rudder.

The one-masted rigs are:

• Cat - one mast, one sail
• Sloop - one mast, two sails
• Cutter - one mast, three or more sails

The cat is the simplest sail plan and has one mast with one sail. It's easy to handle alone, so it's very popular as a fishing boat. Most (very) small sailboats are catboats, like the Sunfish, and many Laser varieties. But it has a limited sail area and doesn't give you the control and options you have with more sails.

The most common sail plan is the sloop. It has one mast and two sails: the main and headsail. Most sloops have a Bermuda mainsail. It's one of the best racing rigs because it's able to sail very close to the wind (also called 'weatherly'). It's one of the fastest rig types for upwind sailing.

It's a simple sail plan that allows for high performance, and you can sail it short-handed. That's why most sailboats you see today are (Bermuda) sloops.

This rig is also called the Marconi rig, and it was developed by a Dutch Bermudian (or a Bermudian Dutchman) - someone from Holland who lived on Bermuda.

A cutter has three or more sails. Usually, the sail plan looks a lot like the sloop, but it has three headsails instead of one. Naval cutters can carry up to 6 sails.

Cutters have larger sail area, so they are better in light air. The partition of the sail area into more smaller sails give you more control in heavier winds as well. Cutters are considered better for bluewater sailing than sloops (although sloops will do fine also). But the additional sails just give you a bit more to play with.

Two-masted boats can have an extra mast in front or behind the mainmast. If the extra mast is behind (aft of) the mainmast, it's called a mizzenmast . If it's in front of the mainmast, it's called a foremast .

If you look at a boat with two masts and it has a foremast, it's most likely either a schooner or a brig. It's easy to recognize a foremast: the foremast is smaller than the aft mast.

If the aft mast is smaller than the front mast, it is a sail plan with a mizzenmast. That means the extra mast has been placed at the back of the boat. In this case, the front mast isn't the foremast, but the mainmast. Boats with two masts that have a mizzenmast are most likely a yawl or ketch.

The two-masted rigs are:

• Lugger - two masts (mizzen), with lugsail (a cross between gaff rig and lateen rig) on both masts
• Yawl - two masts (mizzen), fore-and-aft rigged on both masts. Main mast is much taller than mizzen. Mizzen without a mainsail.
• Ketch - two masts (mizzen), fore-and-aft rigged on both masts. Main mast with only slightly smaller mizzen. Mizzen has mainsail.
• Schooner - two masts (foremast), generally gaff rig on both masts. Main mast with only slightly smaller foremast. Sometimes build with three masts, up to seven in the age of sail.
• Bilander - two masts (foremast). Has a lateen-rigged mainsail and square-rigged sails on the foremast and topsails.
• Brig - two masts (foremast), partially square-rigged. The main mast carries small lateen-rigged sail.

The yawl has two masts that are fore-and-aft rigged and a mizzenmast. The mizzenmast is much shorter than the mainmast, and it doesn't carry a mainsail. The mizzenmast is located aft of the rudder and is mainly used to increase helm balance.

A ketch has two masts that are fore-and-aft rigged. The extra mast is a mizzenmast. It's nearly as tall as the mainmast and carries a mainsail. Usually, the mainsails of the ketch are gaff-rigged, but there are Bermuda-rigged ketches too. The mizzenmast is located in front of the rudder instead of aft, as on the yawl.

The function of the ketch's mizzen sail is different from that of the yawl. It's actually used to drive the boat forward, and the mizzen sail, together with the headsail, are sufficient to sail the ketch. The mizzen sail on a yawl can't really drive the boat forward.

Schooners have two masts that are fore-and-aft rigged. The extra mast is a foremast which is generally smaller than the mainmast, but it does carry a mainsail. Schooners are also built with a lot more masts, up to seven (not anymore). The schooner's mainsails are generally gaff-rigged.

The schooner is easy to sail but not very fast. It handles easier than a sloop, except for upwind, and it's only because of better technology that sloops are now more popular than the schooner.

The brig has two masts. The foremast is always square-rigged. The mainmast can be square-rigged or is partially square-rigged. Some brigs carry a lateen mainsail on the mainmast, with square-rigged topsails.

Some variations on the brig are:

Brigantine - two masts (foremast), partially square-rigged. Mainmast carries no square-rigged mainsail.

Hermaphrodite brig - also called half brig or schooner brig. Has two masts (foremast), partially square-rigged. Mainmast carries a gaff rig mainsail and topsail, making it half schooner.

Three-masted boats are mostly barques or schooners. Sometimes sail plans with two masts are used with more masts.

The three-masted rigs are:

• Barque - three masts, fore, and mainmast are square-rigged, the mizzenmast is usually gaff-rigged. All masts carry mainsail.
• Barquentine - three masts, foremast is square-rigged, the main and mizzenmast are fore-and-aft rigged. Also called the schooner barque.
• Polacca - three masts, foremast is square-rigged, the main and mizzenmast are lateen-rigged.
• Xebec - three masts, all masts are lateen-rigged.

A barque has three or four masts. The fore and mainmast are square-rigged, and the mizzen fore-and-aft, usually gaff-rigged. Carries a mainsail on each mast, but the mainsail shape differs per mast (square or gaff). Barques were built with up to five masts. Four-masted barques were quite common.

Barques were a good alternative to full-rigged ships because they require a lot fewer sailors. But they were also slower. Very popular rig for ocean crossings, so a great rig for merchants who travel long distances and don't want 30 - 50 sailors to run their ship.

Barquentine

The barquentine usually has three masts. The foremast is square-rigged and the main and mizzenmast fore-and-aft. The rear masts are usually gaff-rigged.

Faster than a barque or a schooner, but the performance is worse than both.

The polacca or polacre rig has three masts with a square-rigged foremast. The main and mizzenmast are lateen-rigged. Beautiful boat to see. Polacca literally means 'Polish' (it's Italian). It was a popular rig type in the Mediterranean in the 17th century. It looks like the xebec, which has three lateen-rigged masts.

Fun fact: polaccas were used by a Dutch sailor-turned-Turkish-pirate (called Murat Reis).

The xebec is a Mediterranean trading ship with three masts. All masts are lateen-rigged. I couldn't find any surviving xebecs, only models and paintings. So I guess this rig is outdated a long time.

A boat with three or more masts that all carry square-rigged sails is called a ship, a tall ship, or a full-rigged ship. So it's at this point that we start calling boats 'ships'. It has nothing to do with size but with the type of rigging.

More sails mean less stress on all of them. These ships use a lot of sails to distribute the forces, which reduces the stress on the rigging and the masts. Square sails mean double the sail area in comparison to triangular sails.

They are quite fast for their size, and they could outrun most sloops and schooners (schooners were relatively a lot heavier). The reason is that tall ships could be a lot longer than sloops, giving them a lot of extra hull speed. Sloops couldn't be as large because there weren't strong enough materials available. Try making a single triangular sail with a sail area of over 500 sq. ft. from linen.

So a lot of smaller sails made sense. You could have a large ship with a good maximum hull speed, without your sails ripping apart with every gust of wind.

But you need A LOT of sailors to sail a tall ship: about 30 sailors in total to ie. reef down sails and operate the ship. That's really a lot.

Tall ships are used nowadays for racing, with the popular tall ship races traveling the world. Every four years I go and check them out when they are at Harlingen (which is very close to where I live).

Check out the amazing ships in this video of the tall ship races last year near my hometown. (The event was organized by friends of mine).

What is the difference between a schooner and a sloop? A schooner has two masts, whereas the sloop only has one. The schooner carries more sails, with a mainsail on both masts. Also, sloops are usually Bermuda-rigged, whereas schooners are usually gaff-rigged. Most schooners also carry one or two additional headsails, in contrast to the single jib of the sloop.

What do you call a two-masted sailboat? A two-masted sailboat is most likely a yawl, ketch, schooner, or brig. To determine which one it is you have to locate the mainmast (the tallest). At the rear: schooner or brig. In front: yawl or ketch. Brigs have a square-rigged foremast, schooners don't. Ketches carry a mainsail on the rear mast; yawls don't.

What is a sloop rig? A sloop rig is a sailboat with one mast and two sails: a mainsail and headsail. It's a simple sail plan that handles well and offers good upwind performance. The sloop rig can be sailed shorthanded and is able to sail very close to the wind, making it very popular. Most recreational sailboats use a sloop rig.

What is the difference between a ketch and a yawl? The most important difference between a ketch and a yawl are the position and height of the mizzenmast. The mizzenmast on a yawl is located aft of the rudder, is shorter than the mainmast and doesn't carry a mainsail. On a ketch, it's nearly as long as the mainmast and carries a mainsail.

There are a wonderful lots of DIY changeability shows on the cable airwaves these days.

Rick the rigger

There are SO many errors on this site it really should be taken down.

First major mistake is to say you are no longer afraid of the sea.

One that truly gets up my nose is the term ‘fully’ rigged ship. It’s a FULL rigged ship!! Your mast names are the wrong way round and just because there may be 3 it doesn’t automatically mean the one in the middle is the main.

I could go on and totally destroy your over inflated but fragile ego but I won’t. All I will say is go learn a lot more before posting.

Shawn Buckles

Thanks for your feedback. If you like to point out anything more specific, please let me know and I will update the articles. I’ve changed fully-rigged to full-rigged ship - which is a typo on my part. I try to be as concise as I can, but, obviously, we all make mistakes every now and then. The great thing about the internet is that we can learn from each other and update our knowledge together.

If you want to write yourself and share your knowledge, please consider applying as a writer for my blog by clicking on the top banner.

Thanks, Shawn

Well, I feel that I’ve learned a bit from this. The information is clear and well laid out. Is it accurate? I can’t see anything at odds with the little I knew before, except that I understood a xebec has a square rigged centre mainmast, such as the Pelican ( https://www.adventureundersail.com/ )

Hi, Shawn, You forgot (failed) to mention another type of rig? The oldest type of rig known and still functions today JUNK RIG!

Why are so many of the comments here negative. I think it is wonderful to share knowledge and learn together. I knew a little about the subject (I’m an Aubrey-Maturin fan!) but still found this clarified some things for me. I can’t comment therefore on the accuracy of the article, but it seems clear to me that the spirit of the author is positive. We owe you some more bonhomme I suggest Shawn.

As they say in the Navy: “BZ” - for a good article.

Been reading S.M. Stirling and wanted to understand the ship types he references. Thank you, very helpful.

This site is an awesome starting point for anyone who would like to get an overview of the subject. I am gratefull to Shawn for sharing - Thanks & Kudos to you! If the negative reviewers want to get a deeper technical knowledge that is accurate to the n-th then go study the appropriate material. Contribute rather than destroy another’s good work. Well done Shawn. Great job!

Good stuff Shawn - very helpful. As a novice, it’s too confusing to figure out in bits and pieces. Thanks for laying it out.

First of all I have to say that Rick ‘the rigger’ is obviously the one with the “over inflated but fragile ego” and I laughed when you suggested he share his knowledge on your blog, well played!

As for the content it’s great, hope to read more soon!

Alec Lowenthal

Shawn, I have a painting of a Spanish vessel, two masted, with. Lateen sails on both masts and a jib. The mainsail is ahead of the main mast (fore) and the other is aft of the mizzen mast. Would this be what you call lugger rig? I have not seen a similar picture. Thanks, Alec.

Thank you for your article I found easy to read and understand, and more importantly remember, which emphasises the well written.. Pity about the negative comments, but love your proactive responses!

This vessel, “SEBASTIAN” out of Garrucha, Almería, España, was painted by Gustave Gillman in 1899.

Sorry, picture not accepted!

Thank you for a very informative article. I sail a bit and am always looking for more knowledge. I like the way you put forth your info and I feel if you can’t say anything positive, then that person should have their own blog or keep their opinions to their-self. I will be looking for more from you. I salute your way of dealing with negative comments.

Thank you for a great intro to sailing boats! I searched different sailboats because I use old sails tp make bags and wanted to learn the difference. Way more than I ever expected. Thanks for all the work put in to teach the rest of us.

Your description of a cutter is lacking, and your illustrations of “cutters” are actually cutter-rigged sloops. On a true cutter, the mast is moved further aft (with more than 40% of the ship forward of the mast). A sloop uses tension in the backstay to tension the luff of the foresail. The cutter can’t do this.

Also, a bermuda-rigged ketch will have a line running from the top of the mainmast to the top of the mizzenmast.

wow great guide to rig types! thanks

Interesting guide, however I am confused about the description of the brig. You say the main mast on a brig can have a lateen sail, but in your picture it looks like a gaff sail to me. How is it a lateen sail?

Hi Shawn, thank you for taking the time to share this information. It is clear and very helpful. I am new to sailing and thinking of buying my own blue water yacht. The information you have supplied is very useful. I still am seeking more information on performance and safety. Please keep up the good work. Best Regards

mickey fanelli

I’m starting to repair a model sailboat used in the lake I have three masts that have long been broken off and the sails need replacement. So my question is there a special relationship between the three masts I do have reminents of where the masts should go. they all broke off the boat along with the sails I can figure out where they go because of the old glue marks but it makes no sense. or does it really matter on a model thank you mickey

Cool, total novice here. I have learnt a lot. Thanks for sharing - the diagrams along with the text make it really easy to understand, especially for a beginner who hasn’t even stepped on a sailing boat.

Daryl Beatt

Thank you. Cleared up quite a few things for me. For example, I was familiar with the names “Xebecs” and “Polaccas” from recent reading about the Barbary War. I had gathered that the two Barbary types were better suited to sailing in the Med, but perhaps they were less able to be adaptable to military uses,(but one might assume that would be ok if one plans to board and fight, as opposed to fight a running gun duel). Specifically, the strangely one sided August 1, 1801 battle between the USS Enterprise under Lt. John Sterett and the Polacca cruiser Tripoli under Admiral Rais Mahomet Rous. On paper both ships seemed nearly equal in size, guns and crew, but pictures of the battle are confusing. While the Enterprise is usually rendered as the familiar schooner, the polacca Tripoli has been pictured in radically different ways. Thus the Wikipedia picture by Hoff in 1878 used to illustrate the Battle shows a Brig design for Tripoli, indicating 77 years later, polaccas were no longer common.

Lee Christiansen

I am curious as to what you would call a modern race boat with a fractional jib,not equipped for full masthead hoist? Thanks Lee

Thanks Guy: The information and pictures really eliminate a lot of the mystery of the terminology and the meanings. Also appreciate the insight of the handling idiosyncrasies “hand” (staff) requirements to manage a vessel for one that has not been on the water much. I long to spend significant time afloat, but have concern about the ability to handle a vessel due to advancing age. The Significant Other prefers to sit (in AC comfort)and be entertained by parties of cruise line employees. Thanks again for the information.

Gordon Smith

Your discussion made no mention of the galleon, a vessel with either square-rigged Fore and Main masts and a shorter lateen-rigged Mizzen, or, on larger galleons, square-rigged Fore and Main masts, with a lateen-rigged Mizzen and a lateen-rigged Bonaventure mast, both shorter than either the Fore or Main masts. Also, it was not uncommon for a galleon to hoist a square-rigged bowsprit topsail in addition to the usual square-rigged spritsail.

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Masts and Rigging Systems for Sailing Ships

Masts and rigging are essential components of sailing vessels, serving crucial roles in both the structure and functionality of the ship. The masts are the vertical poles, typically made of wood or metal, that rise from the deck of the ship and support the sails. They come in different types depending on the size and design of the vessel, including the mainmast, foremast, and mizzenmast. These masts must be strong and flexible enough to withstand the forces exerted by the wind on the sails. The height and placement of the masts are meticulously planned to optimize sail efficiency and balance the ship’s stability.

Standing rigging

Running rigging, lifting/hauling systems.

Rigging refers to the complex system of ropes, cables, and chains used to support the masts and manipulate the sails. There are two main types of rigging: standing rigging and running rigging. Standing rigging consists of the fixed lines that hold the masts upright, such as stays and shrouds, providing stability to the vessel. Running rigging, on the other hand, includes the movable lines that control the raising, lowering, and adjusting of the sails, like halyards and sheets. The rigging must be carefully maintained and adjusted to ensure the ship can harness the wind effectively and navigate safely through various sea conditions.

THIS ARTICLE IS mainly for the sailboat owner or prospective owner of a boat in which the Technical Advice on the Boat Inspection Process and Why Survey Your Own Boat mast and rigging is a very important part of the structure; however, it also applies to motorboats fitted with a boat launching derrick or fishing boats on which you need to survey the trawling gear or similar equipment.

The rigging of a boat can be quite a complex structure, and there are various options for its set-up, so one of the first things to do during a survey of the mast and rigging is to pin down what system is being used and how it all hangs together. It can often look very fragile, with thin strands of wire and the seemingly impossibly thin mast supporting the stress and strain of the sails.

The first dilemma you’ll face when surveying the mast and rigging is whether to check it with the mast up or down. In some ways you want to have the mast erected to see how the whole system works and to reveal any existing weak points or wear, but it’s difficult to do a full check on rigging that is under tension since most of the wear points will be in the « nip », the point where two fittings, such as a shackle or clevis pin, link at the top or bottom of a wire. This can be a particular problem at the masthead fittings; you could examine them with binoculars or even make a trip up the mast in a bosun’s chair, but unless the rigging is slack enough so that the links in the system can be opened you won’t be able to determine if there is wear here.

Therefore, in order to examine the fittings in detail the mast needs to be down. It’s unlikely the sails will be erected during a survey, but the mainsail may be on the boom or in the mast with a mast reefing system, and a roller reefing jib could still be in place.

Mast Installation

IF THE MAST is erected, start your survey by studying it closely. Look at how the mast is fitted in the boat. On older boats it may go through the deck with the heel connecting with a mast step just above the keel. The alternative, and the system used on most modern yachts, is to have the mast step on the deck or on the coachroof, which in turn is supported by a tube or column between the coachroof and the keel or bottom framing.

This latter arrangement does away with the need to have some sort of seal around the point where the mast passes through the coachroof or deck, which has traditionally always been a source of trouble and leaks: the mast is always going to move slightly under the stresses and strains of sailing and so trying to seal this joint adequately is difficult. The traditional fix was to place mast wedges in the hole around the mast before fitting a canvas cover over them to keep the water out. A more modern system might employ a rubber boot as the seal, held in place by worm drive clips. In either case look below for signs of leaks, and if there is staining check the condition of the seal. If the seal has been removed you may see signs of movement around the joint where the mast passes through the deck/ coachroof, which will be revealed by shiny areas on an aluminium mast or wear on a wooden mast. This isn’t a serious problem (since there is always a certain amount of movement at this point) unless the wear looks considerable.

The mast step, whether it is inside or outside the boat, is a critical part of the installation as it takes the considerable downward stress of the mast and transmits it to the hull structure. There will often be a pad of some sort in the mast step, which acts as a shock absorber. On the rare occasions when the mast is removed, check the mast step and mast heel for cracks or distortion. You may find corrosion at the base of the mast, since water can lie in this area. If the mast is stepped on deck, the supporting pillar below it will normally be a rigid structure in metal, so check its base for corrosion. To be certain that it is taking the downward strain, use a straight edge to make sure it’s not bent or bowed in any way.

The Basic Equipment of a Sailboat and Their Characteristics mast is a complex structure requiring detailed examination. It is likely to be constructed from wood or aluminium, with carbon fibre composites usually only seen on racing yachts. You’ll find many fixtures and fittings attached to the mast in the way of the:

• slots for pulleys;
• antenna(e);
• and rigging wire attachments.

The complication is increased when there is in-mast reefing for the mainsail.

Hollow wooden masts are designed to reduce weight but even here most or all of the attachments and ropes will be on the outside so examination is relatively straightforward, provided you can get close access.

Check fittings for any sign of movement, such as slight abrasion in the varnish surface or the wood itself. Certain designs may encourage water to collect behind the fitting, which could start to rot, so look for discolouration of the wood. In particular, check the base of a wooden mast if it lies inside rather than on the boat. Close examination of discoloured fittings may require removal.

If you’re examining an aluminium mast, you should focus on detecting corrosion. Aluminium is extremely durable but most mast fittings will be made from stainless steel, meaning you have two dissimilar metals in the presence of sea water which could start electrolytic corrosion (seen in the creation of a grey/white powder around the meeting point).

The aluminium will suffer more than the stainless steel, although if the latter is low quality you may also see some rust coloured surface corrosion. Fittings are usually fastened to the mast with rivets, which could be a different type of metal again, so you must check all of them for the same signs of corrosion. Of course, if the mast is erected you will only be able to see the bottom part of the fitting as you look up with your binoculars.

If the mast is still up, stand back from the boat to examine the rigging. This will enable you to detect any fittings that are out of line, which could place them under additional strain. Modern rigging tends to allow for a degree of unevenness via the use of toggles and similar fittings which take up a natural alignment, so that angles are not so critical here.

However, be sure to check all fittings closely. You might see this misalignment where a shackle is attached to the chain plates and the span of the shackle opening is much wider than the width of the chain plate to which it is attached, thus allowing the shackle to cant over. A shackle that is canted in this way could be a weak point in the rigging, so all shackles should be moused with wire to prevent the shackle pin unscrewing when the rigging vibrates.

There can be a whole collection of fittings at the masthead ranging from halyard blocks to rigging attachments, electronic antenna(e) and navigation lights. These are often out of sight, out of mind so that whenever the mast is taken down, these fittings should be inspected. Binoculars should help you to check that shackles are not coming undone and wires are not unravelling but the detail can only be seen by getting up there or getting the mast down.

On a survey you should be looking for any elongation of the holes in lugs where halyard shackles are attached, or in the eyes that may also act as an attachment. Halyard attachments are often slack when the halyard is not in use, which can lead to wear in the holes or in the nip of the fitting.

The boom and its fittings need to come in for a similar check, particularly the gooseneck where the boom attaches to the mast. The double joint here should be checked for wear because it comes under considerable strain.

Carefully go over the vang attachments. If the vang is hydraulic check it for any leaks, indicated by a film of oil on the surface.

There will be more bits to check on both boats where the sail is reefed into the boom and where there is in-mast reefing.

Getting access to the moving parts on these installations can be a challenge and this may be a dismantling job that should be scheduled perhaps every time the mast is taken out.

On a purchase survey inspect everything you can see for the tell-tale signs of wear, such as shiny surfaces and a grey or brown powder.

Contact Points (« NIPS »)

AS WE SAW earlier in this article, the « nip » is the point at which the two surfaces of an attachment meet. You can’t see this contact point until the attachment is slackened off, which enables you to open up the contact points. While everything may look fine from the outside, if a bit of sand or grit gets into the nip and the two surfaces begin to rub together, wear will occur.

Where the meeting point consists of two rounded surfaces, the wear will be directly in the nip, while with a tongue and pin fitting (such as might be found on chain plates) the wear will be focused on a pinpoint area. There will always be movement at these points in the rigging, so it’s difficult to judge how much of this type of wear is permissible. I’d suggest measuring the diameter of the worn part against the unworn part with a pair of callipers: certainly you should be looking to replace anything more than a quarter of the original dimension, but I would recommend even less because it will only get worse with time.

Every contact point between two parts of the rigging should receive this level of inspection, although you can only really go into this much detail with the mast out of the boat. If you are the boat owner, I’d suggest a bi-annual check along these lines. It might seem extreme, but if one element in the balanced rigging system fails it can start a chain reaction of failure, leading to possible collapse of the mast itself.

Rigging Wires

It can be hard to find faults in the rigging wires, so a quick glance is never enough. The first place to look is at the point where the wires terminate in the swages, the securing point for the end of the wire, which in turn are connected to the adjusting rigging screws or connections. The usual arrangement sees a cone fitted inside the swage with its point at the centre of the wire strands. When the swage is tightened up this cone then presses the wire strand against the inner sides of the swage, which locks them into place.

There are a number of patented connections but they all tend to work on a similar principle: the point is that you want to examine the point at which the wire enters the swage, since there can be pressure on the wire strands here. Another type of swaged fitting has a stainless steel ferule fitted over the wire and compressed under high pressure around the wire. The ferule was under considerable strain when it was fitted and in later life this can make it prone to stress cracking. You may well see signs of corrosion, but you may wish to get out your magnifying glass to get a much closer look at the surface of the fitting.

If there is a bottom connection linking the wire to the rigging screw, the hole where the wire enters is probably not fully sealed, meaning water can lie in the crevices and begin to corrode the metal. Vibration in the wire can aggravate the situation, the outside wires usually being the first to show signs of fatigue. Again, it might be necessary to use a magnifying glass – even if there is only one broken strand, it is a case for replacement of the wire.

Less common are broken strands in the wire along its exposed length, probably caused by historical damage at some time. To check for this deterioration, put on a pair of stout leather gloves and run your hand along the wire to detect any « snagging » on broken wire ends. Again, replacement is the only solution.

Both of these checks can be done with the rigging in place so you could use a bosun’s chair to get the required access. If you’re taking the easy route and using binoculars for a visual inspection, you may be able to see broken strands at the top fixings if the wire has opened up a little, but you’ll need to move around to get a view of the wire’s full circumference. Certainly in this way you should be able to detect any defects before the wire actually parts, but on a survey a closer inspection is the best solution.

The backstays can be more vulnerable to stranding in this way because they are slackened off when on the lee side, meaning they may be swinging around in the wind. Because of this excessive movement, you must check both the wire at the connections and its securing fitting, such as shackles, for wear in the nip.

The forestay is another vulnerable point: not only does it help to hold the mast up but it also supports the jib. This support may be in the form of snap hooks that attach the jib to the stay and slide up and down it, but most modern yachts now use a roller reefing system, where the jib rolls up around the forestay fittings. This can add to the stress at the end fittings, particularly the lower one where the operating furling rope connects.

The sail also hides the bit that forms the « tube » around which the sail will roll; this « tube » should be free to revolve easily as it is turned because if it jams, it can get twisted and may even break, which in turn may tear the sail. The crew can cause this damage to the « tube » if they’re struggling to furl the jammed jib; they take the operating rope to a winch and put excess pressure on the system instead of trying to find the fault. Therefore during a survey the jib, and particularly its swivels and of course the forestay and its hidden connections, should be taken off the furling gear and inspected in detail.

Rigging Screws

The rigging screws that allow the Tips on Rigging a Boat and Using Knots in Sailing rigging wires to be adjusted and tensioned can take a lot of abuse, particularly those at the sides which, on top of their intended use of connecting rigging, may also be used for tying off the tender and even mooring ropes. The first thing to look for is any screws that are close to using up their full adjustment – if they are, look for the cause. It may be that the wire to which it is attached was made up too long in the first place or that the wire has stretched, but these are unlikely causes.

Perhaps the mast isn’t installed in the proper upright position or there is damage in the rigging wire. If both screws on the same side present with this problem, it could be that the mast or possibly even the chain plates are moving. Whatever the issue, do take the time to find the cause because a rigging screw with no more adjustment isn’t much use.

Check that the locking devices for the rigging screws are in place. These are usually lock nuts located at the outer ends of the turning part and they are tightened up against this turning part to stop it moving of its own accord. Since rigging screws can cause chafe on the foresails if they pass outside this point they are often covered in tape or other anti-chafe material, such as a plastic sleeve, so this should be removed to inspect what is happening below.

Because of the hard life they lead and their vulnerable position, the threaded section in screws can also become bent, which prevents further adjustment, so check that the threaded sections run true when turned and the rigging screw works throughout its length. This is also the time to look for any wear in the nips of the securing shackles and clevis pins (when the rigging is slackened off, of course).

Mast and Chain Plates

The chain plates and/or the deck fittings to which the rigging screws are attached should also come in for scrutiny. These rigging attachment points are a vital part of the structure: they not only serve to transmit the rigging loads to the hull, but also help to keep the mast where it should be.

It is fairly easy to get a look at the external chain plates so check for any signs of movement where they are bolted to the hull, and/or staining of the topsides or paintwork which could indicate that there is corrosion beneath, perhaps in the fastening bolts. These bolts should also be checked inside the hull to ensure that they are tight and there is no sign of movement. There should always be a backing plate here to help spread the rigging loadings into the hull structure.

You should get the same backing plates when the chain plates are replaced by deck plates bolted through the deck.

Here the loading should be spread between at least the adjacent frames in order to help transmit the loading to the hull structure.

Carefully check the deck moulding around the fitting for any signs of softness or staining, which may indicate that water is getting into the moulding around the edge of the fitting or the fixing bolts.

At the bow the securing for the forestay is often incorporated into the stem head fitting, while at the stern the backstay(s) may have chain plates bolted to the transom or eye bolts on the deck.

These are only as good as the laminate they are bolted to, so check for backing pads or plates, tight nuts and for any signs of softness or staining in the laminate: it is not unknown for a rigging attachment to pull out and take part of the deck with it.

Finally, check that the pull of the rigging wire is in line at the tongues fitted to the mast and the chain plates at the bottom of the rigging.

It’s not unusual to find that there is a misalignment so that there is a sharp change in angle between the rigging and its attachment point, which can place added stress at the point of connection, creating a wear point (you’ll need the mast in situ to see this).

Running Riggings are the ropes but they may incorporate some wires, such as for parts of the halyards.

With so many ropes going up inside the mast it can be difficult to get access to all of them, but if you pull the halyards up and down you’ll expose most of the length (although you may need a trip up the mast to see some parts). This is a pretty straightforward check: you’re looking for any signs of chafe and wear.

Many modern ropes have an outer weave that provides the wear and UV resistance, while the main strength of the rope is in the strands below. If the outer weave gets worn and the inner strands are exposed, it’s time for renewal because not only will the wear accelerate but with the outer weave torn the rope could end up jamming in a pulley or clamp.

Read also: Deck and Super Structure

On modern sailboats many of the ropes can take quite a strain when under sail in a blow and this is the last moment that you want one to fail.

While checking the ropes is easy, examining the blocks and leads that they run through can be more of a challenge. The modern system of blocks and ropes is a fascinating cat’s cradle that should have been designed for easy sail handling and adjustment. It includes blocks at the top of the mast, which handle the halyards, and at the base of the mast, which lead the halyards out. More blocks are found at the mast base leading the various ropes to the clamps and winches, while finally there are the sheet lead blocks.

You can check most blocks by hand, but for a good check you need the weight off the rope running through the block you’re examining, which may be difficult to achieve when looking at the masthead blocks.

Modern blocks are usually made from a combination of stainless steel and tough composites, so they should be corrosion-proof, but they can be subject to wear. If you see wear in a rope it could be a clue that there is wear in the block, since the sheave may not be running true. Try to move the sheave in relation to the frame of the block – there should only be the very minimum of movement between the two, just enough to ensure free running. Any more and it may be time to replace the block. Also look for any signs of the rope rubbing on the sides of the block, which might suggest that there is wear in the sheave bearing or perhaps damage to the pulley itself. While examining the blocks check the securing shackles for wear in the nip and pins (these shackles should be moused).

Rope Clamps

The rope clamps are usually a simple cam operated system and here just a visual check is all that is required to ensure the clamp is operating properly and free of damage. Check the mounting points and fixings, because these clamps can take a heavy strain.

Most winches should be stripped down for maintenance and lubrication perhaps once a season, but during a survey you quickly check for wear in the bearings by simply moving the barrel of the winch to and fro. There will always be a small amount of play for the winch to run freely but anything more than a couple of millimetres indicates a more detailed check is required.

Finally, examine the mounting fixings as, like the clamps, these can come under heavy strain.

THE FIRST PLACE to look for signs of wear in the sails would be in the corners and in the pockets for the sail battens, the areas that wear first on a well-used sail. As a general rule a newer sail should feel firm while older sails should have a softer feel, but this is no sure guide. The state of the stitching is another clue to a sail’s condition; modern sails are made from a « harder » fabric than earlier sails, and the stitching tends to sit « proud » on the fabric surface, leaving it more vulnerable to rapid wear. Check all around the edges of the sail and its attached fittings, such as the mast sliders and the sheet eyes. Be alert to signs of repair, such as inconsistent stitching or patches. If you have any doubts about the durability of a repair, it may be time to call in an expert sailmaker, but keep in mind that he/she may have a vested interest in condemning a sail.

Jibs fitted onto furling systems can deteriorate through UV damage, which is why when the sail is rolled up, the exposed part is often constructed from a coloured material that protects it from harmful rays. This strip can act as a sacrificial part of the sail to be renewed when it deteriorates UV damage in a more serious form is indicated by a « powdery » substance on the surface of the sail; by this point, the sail is going rapidly downhill. Any sail fitted to a roller reefing system needs to be checked closely, since these systems can lead to localised chafing if the sail doesn’t roll on and off smoothly.

IF YOU’RE CHECKING a motorboat with a derrick or boom for boat launching or, on a more serious note, a fishing boat where there are blocks and wires for hauling pots or trawls, these require the same thorough checks.

Any failure in a lifting or hauling system can have dire consequences if a heavy load should drop, so take nothing for granted:

• carefully examine the wires;
• and shackles.

It is so easy to assume that everything is OK until something in the system fails; the stresses on modern rigs can be surprisingly high, so take nothing for granted.

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• Mastering the Mast: A Comprehensive Dive into the World of Sailboat Masts and Their Importance

A mast is not just a tall structure on a sailboat; it's the backbone of the vessel, holding sails that catch the wind, driving the boat forward. Beyond function, it's a symbol of adventure, romance, and humanity's age-old relationship with the sea.

The Rich Tapestry of Sailboat Mast History

From the simple rafts of ancient civilizations to the majestic ships of the Renaissance and the agile sailboats of today, masts have undergone significant evolution.

• The Humble Beginnings : Early masts were basic structures, made from whatever wood was available. These rudimentary poles were designed to support basic sails that propelled the boat forward.
• The Age of Exploration : As ships grew in size and began journeying across oceans, the demands on masts increased. They needed to be taller, stronger, and able to support multiple sails.
• Modern Innovations : Today's masts are feats of engineering, designed for efficiency, speed, and durability.

A Deep Dive into Types of Boat Masts

There's no 'one size fits all' in the world of masts. Each type is designed with a specific purpose in mind.

• Keel Stepped Mast : This is the traditional choice, where the mast runs through the deck and extends into the keel. While providing excellent stability, its integration with the boat's structure makes replacements and repairs a task.
• Deck Stepped Mast : Gaining popularity in modern sailboats, these masts sit atop the deck. They might be perceived as less stable, but advancements in boat design have largely addressed these concerns.

Materials and Their Impact

The choice of material can profoundly affect the mast's weight, durability, and overall performance.

• Aluminum : Lightweight and resistant to rust, aluminum masts have become the industry standard for most recreational sailboats.
• Carbon Fiber : These masts are the sports cars of the sailing world. Lightweight and incredibly strong, they're often seen on racing boats and high-performance vessels.
• Wood : Wooden masts carry the romance of traditional sailing. They're heavier and require more maintenance but offer unparalleled aesthetics and a classic feel.

Anatomy of a Sail Mast

Understanding the various components can greatly improve your sailing experience.

• Masthead : Sitting atop the mast, it's a hub for various instruments like wind indicators and lights.
• Spreaders : These are essential for maintaining the mast's stability and optimizing the angle of the sails.
• Mast Steps and Their Critical Role : Climbing a mast, whether for repairs, adjustments, or simply the thrill, is made possible by these "rungs." Their design and placement are paramount for safety.

Deck vs. Yacht Masts

A common misconception is that all masts are the same. However, the requirements of a small deck boat versus a luxury yacht differ drastically.

• Yacht Masts : Designed for grandeur, these masts are equipped to handle multiple heavy sails, sophisticated rigging systems, and the weight and balance demands of a large vessel.
• Sailboat Masts : Engineered for agility, they prioritize speed, wind optimization, and quick adjustments.

Maintenance, Repairs, and the Importance of Both

Seawater, winds, and regular wear and tear can take their toll on your mast.

• Routine Maintenance : Regular checks for signs of corrosion, wear, or structural issues can prolong your mast's life. Using protective coatings and ensuring moving parts are well-lubricated is crucial.
• Common Repairs : Over time, parts like spreaders, stays, or even the mast steps might need repair or replacement. Regular inspections can spot potential problems before they escalate.

Read our top notch articles on topics such as sailing, sailing tips and destinations in our Magazine .

Check out our latest sailing content:

Costing: The Investment Behind the Mast

While the thrill of sailing might be priceless, maintaining the mast comes with its costs.

• Regular Upkeep : This is an ongoing expense, but think of it as insurance against larger, more costly repairs down the line.
• Repairs : Depending on severity and frequency, repair costs can stack up. It's always advisable to address issues promptly to avoid more significant expenses later.
• Complete Replacement : Whether due to extensive damage or just seeking an upgrade, replacing the mast is a significant investment. Consider factors like material, type, and labor when budgeting.

Upgrading Your Mast: Why and How

There comes a time when every sailor contemplates upgrading their mast. It might be for performance, compatibility with new sail types, or the allure of modern materials and technology.

• Performance Boosts : New masts can offer better aerodynamics, weight distribution, and responsiveness.
• Material Upgrades : Shifting from an old wooden mast to a modern aluminum or carbon fiber one can drastically change your sailing experience.
• Compatibility : Modern sails, especially those designed for racing or specific weather conditions, might necessitate a mast upgrade.

The Impact of Weather on Masts

Weather conditions significantly influence the longevity and performance of your mast. From strong winds to salty sea sprays, each element poses unique challenges. Regularly washing the mast, especially after sailing in saltwater, can help prevent the onset of corrosion and wear.

Customization and Personal Touches

Every sailor has a unique touch, and this extends to the mast. Whether it's intricate carvings on wooden masts, personalized masthead designs, or innovative rigging solutions, customization allows sailors to make their vessel truly their own.

The Role of Sails in Mast Design

It's not just about the mast; the type and size of sails greatly influence mast design. From the full-bellied spinnakers to the slender jibs, each sail requires specific support, tension, and angle, dictating the rigging and structure of the mast.

Safety First: The Role of Masts in Overboard Incidents

A mast isn't just for sailing; it plays a crucial role in safety. In overboard situations, the mast, especially when fitted with steps, can be a lifeline, allowing sailors to climb back onto their boat. Its visibility also aids in search and rescue operations.

The Rise of Eco-Friendly Masts

As the world grows more eco-conscious, the sailing community isn't far behind. New materials, designed to be environmentally friendly, are making their way into mast production. They aim to provide the strength and durability of traditional materials while reducing the environmental footprint.

The Intricate World of Rigging

The mast serves as the anchor for a complex system of ropes, pulleys, and cables – the rigging. This network, when fine-tuned, allows sailors to adjust sails for optimal wind capture, maneuverability, and speed. Mastery over rigging can elevate a sailor's experience and prowess significantly.

Historical Significance: Masts in Naval Warfare

In historical naval battles, the mast played a pivotal role. Damaging or destroying an enemy's mast was a strategic move, crippling their mobility and rendering them vulnerable. The evolution of masts in naval ships offers a fascinating glimpse into maritime warfare tactics of yesteryears.

The Science Behind Mast Vibrations

Ever noticed your mast humming or vibrating in strong winds? This phenomenon, known as aeolian vibration, arises from the interaction between wind and the mast's 

structure. While it can be a mesmerizing sound, unchecked vibrations over time can lead to wear and potential damage.

Future Trends: What Lies Ahead for Sailboat Masts

With technological advancements, the future of masts is bright. Concepts like retractable masts, integrated solar panels, and smart sensors for real-time health monitoring of the mast are on the horizon. These innovations promise to redefine sailing in the years to come.

Paying Homage: Celebrating the Mast

Across cultures and ages, masts have been celebrated, revered, and even worshipped. From the Polynesians who viewed them as spiritual totems, to modern sailors tattooing mast symbols as badges of honor, the mast, in its silent grandeur, continues to inspire awe and respect.

Conclusion: The Mast’s Place in Sailing

In the grand scheme of sailing, the mast holds a place of reverence. It's not just a structural necessity; it's a testament to human ingenuity, our quest for exploration, and the sheer love of the sea.

How often should I inspect my mast?

At least twice a year, preferably before and after sailing season.

Can I handle repairs myself?

Minor repairs, yes. But for major issues, it's best to consult a professional.

Is there an average lifespan for a mast?

With proper care, masts can last decades. Material and maintenance quality play a huge role.

How do I know if it's time to replace my mast?

Constant repairs, visible wear, and decreased performance are indicators.

What's the most durable mast material?

Carbon fiber is incredibly strong and durable, but aluminum also offers excellent longevity.

So what are you waiting for? Take a look at our range of charter boats and head to some of our favourite  sailing destinations.

Mast Queries Answered

I am ready to help you with booking a boat for your dream vacation. contact me..

Denisa Kliner Nguyenová

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Inspecting Your Boat's Mast and Rigging

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Keep your sailboat in top shape with this useful advice on inspecting your boat's mast and rigging.

Surveying Your Rig

What to look for and why.

Whenever a mast tumbles overboard, the two seemingly obvious offenders are the mast itself — the aluminum extrusion — and the wire stays and shrouds that support the mast. In practice however, these are rarely the culprits. The offenders, in most cases, are the tangs, turnbuckles, and chainplates and the smaller, but no less significant, screws, bolts, terminal fittings, clevis and cotter pins that hold everything together. These can be inspected in a couple hours or less. All you need for an inspection is a magnifying lens, a mirror, some toilet paper, your fingernails, a boatswain's chair, and a pair of reasonably good eyes.

Download the Rigging Checklist in PDF format.

Whenever you inspect a fitting, look for obvious problems like rust and distortion and use the magnifying glass to find smaller cracks. Rust, especially rust that you can feel, and even slight distortions or cracks should be considered serious, and the component replaced. Use your fingernails to feel for cracks and check the thinnest part of the fittings extra carefully, as this is where failure is most likely to occur. If a fitting has been painted (a bad idea), strip off the paint.

Chainplates

Turnbuckles and chainplates must be angled so that loads are in a direct line with stays and shrouds. Toggles, which act like universal joints to allow movement in all directions, should be used with turnbuckles but they cannot be relied on to compensate for a misaligned chainplate. A chainplate that is not aligned has a tendency to work until it eventually breaks. Besides eyeballing the shroud/chainplate alignment, misalignment is sometimes indicated by damage to the surrounding gelcoat.

Chainplates can corrode and fail either above, within, or below the deck. Corrosion at the chainplate above may have been only detected by removing the toggles to inspect around the eye.

The chainplate above failed within the deck, where salt water had leaked down and initiated crevice corrosion where hidden from view.

If chainplates are bolted to a bulkhead, as is often the case, inspect the bulkhead for signs of weakness — discoloration, delamination, and rot. Chainplates are highly stressed, and will work and cause leaks where they come through the deck. Water can then enter the bulkhead and eventually cause it to rot. Probably the best, although maybe not the prettiest, place to secure a chainplate is to the outside of the hull. Chainplates that are only bolted to flanges under the deck, and are not secured to a structural member down below, are the least desirable installation.

Turnbuckles

Open turnbuckles are easier to inspect and don't retain moisture, which encourages corrosion. Closed turnbuckles retain moisture in the barrel and have of a tendency to freeze up, but they also are better at retaining lubricant.

Fatigue and crevice corrosion broke this pair of threaded terminal fittings along the crevice between the lock nut and the turnbuckle body, illustrating why disassembly of the turnbuckle is necessary to inspect hidden trouble spots most likely to fail.

Turnbuckles should be wiped clean and lubricated at least once a year; more often if they are open or are adjusted frequently.

Teflon is better for lubricating turnbuckles than oil or grease because it doesn't hold grit that abrades the threads. Oil or grease, however, are certainly better than nothing.

Most turnbuckles are tightened by turning the shank or barrel clockwise. Incidentally, you should never stress your rig by over-tightening the turnbuckles. If the turnbuckle squeaks stop tightening — this is a sign of over-tightening and poor lubrication.

If you boat has open turnbuckles, be sure to leave at least 3/4" of thread visible in the barrel and replace the old cotter pins. A cotter pin should be large enough to fit snugly into the hole and long enough to be bent half way back around. Rigging tape should then be wrapped around the pin to protect your sails, fingers, toes, etc.

Many closed turnbuckles can't be cottered and rely instead on locknuts. Experts warn that over-tightening the locknuts places too much stress on the threads.

Terminal Fittings

Most sailboats rely on swage fittings at the terminals, but these fittings are not necessarily the most reliable, especially in warmer climates where they have a history of failure. Swage fittings are made by compressing a tube onto the wire under great pressure, a process that must be done exactly right to assure a strong bond. If the swage has to be pressed several times (a bad practice) before the wire is secure, there is an increased chance that the swage has been weakened and could crack.

There are other types of terminal fittings, such as Noresman and Sta-Lok, which are more expensive and less common than swage fittings but are highly touted by many sailors for their durability. Norseman and Sta-Lok fittings can be installed or repaired by the boat owner — an obvious advantage, especially for making emergency repairs on long cruises.

Cracked swage fittings are not only the most common kind of rigging failure, but also the most visible. This one should have been noticed and replaced long ago.

Careful inspection of all terminal fittings is a must. Cracks are usually microscopic when they begin, so use your magnifying glass. Also, you can sometimes feel a crack with a fingernail that cannot be seen.

Cleaning the fitting with metal polish helps brighten the fitting to make inspection easier and using one of the three-part spray products on the market also helps you see cracks. The latter are highly touted by their manufacturers but they are not infallible. The first part cleans the fitting; the second part is a dye that penetrates the crack; and the third part is a developer. The dye, incidentally, can stain gelcoat, so be careful.

Terminal fittings, especially swage fittings at the deck, are prone to rust where the wire enters the swage. Rust indicates a serious problem and the swage and possibly the wire should be replaced. Some skippers like to use gel or wax to prevent water from entering the swage. While this may be effective for a while, it probably won't keep water out for long and could very well trap water inside, encouraging corrosion.

The Mast and Boom:

Welds and rivets.

Aluminum welds on the mast and boom should be inspected, especially where there may be a lot of stress. Look at the ends of the welds first, as aluminum welds fail from the ends of the weld inward. Welds that are not done correctly have sharp edges and crevices which encourage corrosion. Any welds that are cracked or badly rusted should be rewelded immediately.

Rivets should be examined, and any that are loose or missing should be drilled out and replaced with the next-larger size. Also, if one or two rivets holding a cleat or gooseneck are loose, it is a good idea to replace all of the rivets with the next-larger size, not just the ones that are missing.

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when stainless steel or bronze fittings — cleats, tangs, winches — are installed metal-to-metal on an aluminum mast.

Every few years, mast fittings should be rebedded with zinc chromate paste, polysulfide, teflon, nylon, or tufnol (plastic) to protect the mast from galvanic corrosion. Silicone does a good job of protecting the mast, but the fittings may be difficult to get off later. And in a pinch, Rolf Bjelke aboard the steel ketch Northern Light in the Antarctic, used a plastic coffee can lid to bed a halyard winch.

If a mast is painted, look for bubbles near fittings, which indicate corrosion. On an unpainted mast, look for white powder and pockmarks around fittings. Some powder, which is oxidized aluminum, is normal on an aluminum mast and is usually not significant. But heavy concentrations of powder, bubbles and/or pockmarks, especially deep pockmarks, indicates a serious problem that threatens the integrity of the rig. Contact a rigger or surveyor if you suspect a problem.

Whether it is stepped on deck or on the keel, the base of a mast — a maststep — should be the same material as the mast. Because water that is outside the boat usually finds its way into the bilge, a mast that is stepped on the keel is especially prone to corrosion when the boat is used in saltwater. A rigger in Maryland likes to tell the story about an owner who complained that the stays and shrouds that couldn't be tightened. He thought they had stretched. It turns out that the maststep had corroded so badly that the mast was "sinking" into the bilge.

A mast that is stepped on deck can cause problems if the load isn't supported properly down below. This is sometimes a design problem, but most often it is because a bulkhead or support stanchion has failed — shifted, rotted, delaminated, etc. Look down below for indications of movement, including jammed doors, broken bonds, and splitting wood. A sagging cabin top is a strong indication that adequate support isn't being provided.

Besides corrosion, maststeps can be damaged when the mast is cocked to one side and the heavy compression load is not evenly distributed. Indications of uneven compression load include cracking and/or crushing of the mast's base. The problem can be avoided by keeping your rig tuned — adjusting the stays and shrouds to make the mast straight. If the base of the mast has already been damaged, don't despair, it can either be cut down slightly and restepped or, if the problem is more serious, the damaged portion can be cut down and an extrusion added. Either way, the boat should not be sailed until a rigger is contacted and the problem has been corrected.

Wood masts have a lot of eye appeal but require more upkeep than aluminum masts. Wood masts are usually made of spruce, a material that is light and flexible, but prone to rot.

Rot is easier to detect when a mast is varnished. Painted masts hide rot, but only for awhile. Any areas that are badly discolored on a varnished mast, or won't hold paint on a painted mast, are suspect and should be sounded with a hammer for indications of soft wood. Rot is most likely to appear around fittings, the masthead, mastboot, spreaders, and especially at the maststep. These areas should be inspected twice a season and treated or caulked as necessary. Weep holes, used to drain water at the base of a box mast, can become plugged with debris, leaving water to fester inside the mast. Weep holes should be checked periodically with a coat hanger to prevent blockage.

Inspecting Aloft

Most people have a natural aversion to hanging from a rope at the top of a swaying mast. If possible, inspect your mast while it is unstepped. If you do go aloft, make sure there are experienced hands below to hoist you up. A snap shackle, if one is used on the halyard, can be made safer by taping the lanyard to prevent its accidentally opening. Also, if the boat is in the water, you'll want to moor it where it won't get tossed around by a passing boat wake.

Stress cracks often form at bends of fittings, such as the under side of upper T-ball terminals.

Zero in with a magnifying glass to detect cracks and discoloration before they fail.

Take tools: screwdrivers, pliers, a small hammer, lubricant, the mirror, extra cotter pins, and rigging tape. Put them all in a tool pouch or boatswain's chair with tool pockets and Velcro flaps. Whenever possible, use lanyards on the tools. The only thing worse than making the crew haul you up and down the mast getting tools you forgot is to drop a tool on someone's head. (You can also help the grinder's morale by using your feet and hands to help hoist yourself up.)

First stop is the spreaders. (While you're working, have the tailer cleat-off the halyard.) Make sure the ends of the spreaders bisect the shrouds at equal angles and are secured properly to prevent slipping. Skewed spreaders have been responsible for many dismastings. Tape or spreader boots, used on the spreader ends to prevent damage to the sails, should be removed temporarily so that the spreader ends can be inspected and the connection tightened as necessary.

Some skippers paint the top of the spreaders, even aluminum spreaders, to reduce damage from sunlight. This is a necessity with wooden spreaders, unless you go aloft every month and add a coat of varnish. Remember, you can't see the tops of the spreaders from down below.

Like their counterparts the chainplates, fork tangs, used to secure the shrouds to the mast, should be angled so that loads are in a direct line with stays and shrouds. Cotter pins should be taped so that they don't shred flailing sails or snag a halyard. Shrouds that use "T" terminals should be examined for stress cracks where the bend occurs and for elongation of the slot. Either problem indicates the shroud or fitting should be replaced.

The last stop, before you begin your descent, is the masthead. If you are even slightly acrophobic, the masthead can be a very scary place. Avoid looking down.

The mirror (remember the mirror?) is especially useful for inspecting fittings at the masthead that would otherwise be inaccessible. Look at the halyard fittings, especially the sheaves, which wear over time and can be crushed or split by the strain of the genoa. Even if it's healthy, a squirt of two of lubricant can help whenever the sail is raised. Wind indicators and radio antennas should also be checked for loose mounts and connections.

On the way down check the rivets and/or screws used to secure the mast track. Replace any that are missing or suspect. While you're at it, you may as well lubricate the track (use teflon) to make raising and lowering the sail less of a chore.

Standing Rigging: Stays and Shrouds

Stays and shrouds should have some "give", but not too much, when pressure is exerted with the palm of your hand. A stay that is too tight feels rigid. A stay that is too loose feels limp. Make sure any necessary adjustments are done evenly so the mast doesn't get cocked to one side. And adjustable (mechanical or hydraulic) backstays should be slackened when not in use. Remember, turnbuckles should have sufficient thread inside the barrel — at least 3/4" — and cotter pins to prevent their coming loose. (Be sure and wrap fresh tape around the cotter pins when you're done.)

This is what 1x19 wire looks like at the upper headstay terminal fitting after it has been twisted back and forth a few times from "halyard wrap". Even slight damage from minor episodes warrants replacing the wire.

Wire should be inspected for broken strands or "fishhooks" by wrapping some toilet paper around the wire and running it up and down. If the paper shreds, the wire is nearing the end of its useful life and should be replaced. Check the wire where it enters the swage fittings for rust, which also indicates weakened wires that should be replaced.

Replace Your Standings Rigging: $$$?

Lets play "what if". What if a small voice inside you says your rig is living on borrowed time: you've found rust, cracks, failed welds, and fishhooks?

As a general cost guideline, replacing the standing rigging on a typical 30 footer with 1/4" wire rigging will cost about $1,200. That price includes turnbuckles but not unstepping the mast. The cost of replacing the standing rigging on a 40-foot cruising boat with 3/8" wire could be almost twice as much. Incidentally, it pays to get estimates, as prices can very significantly. Our estimates to replace the standing rigging on a 30-foot boat, for example, were as high as $2,800.

Professional Inspections

If you're not confident in your ability to inspect your boat's rig, you can hire a professional — a rigger or surveyor — to do it for you. Riggers specialize in rigging, which is an advantage, but they could be biased since they also sell rigging. An inspection, including going aloft, should be under $100 for a 30' boat.

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Understanding your mast and rigging

by Simon Jollands | Boat Maintenance , Preparation , Yacht ownership

The rig of a sailing boat is put under huge stresses and strains so it is important for inspections of a yacht’s spars and rigging to be carried out at regular intervals.

All the elements of a sailing rig – the mast, spreaders, boom, kicker, stays and the fittings that hold everything together – are subjected to considerable forces when at sea.

Less obvious perhaps is that the process of cyclic loading, the cause of metal fatigue, continues unabated even when a boat is rocking gently on a sheltered mooring. The rig components continue to push and pull against each other, day in and day out. Added to the all stresses and strains imposed on the rig components are their susceptibility to different kinds of corrosion, caused in the case of aluminium masts both by exposure to the marine environment on the one hand and also by galvanic corrosion. This occurs when stainless steel or bronze fittings are fitted to aluminium masts and not adequately insulated from each other, which causes the aluminium to corrode. While wooden masts do not suffer from galvanic corrosion, they are susceptible to rot and de-lamination.

As with many other kinds of boat care, regular checks, preventative maintenance and the correct set up of mast and rigging are key to ensuring longevity and preventing failure. With sailing boat rigs in particular, the integrity of all their parts is vital. The mast and rigging is a lightweight structure designed to be rigid and strong, a bit like a house of cards – if one of the components fails then the whole house comes tumbling down. Even if one part becomes loose this can increase loads on other parts, causing them to fail.

While doing regular checks of your rig throughout the sailing season is good practice, so too is a more detailed inspection when the boat comes ashore and if needs be the mast can be taken down. Even if the rig remains unstepped ashore it still needs to be checked by a trained eye.

Understanding your rig

There are many kinds of mast and rig configurations for sailing boats and it is important for boat owners to fully understand the rig set up of their particular boat. This understanding will help them know what to look out for when doing their regular checks. Here are a few questions that owners should be able to answer:

Standing rigging

• What are the main causes of rig failure?
• When was the mast last unstepped? Once every two or three years is generally recommended.
• When was the standing rigging last inspected? Annual inspections are usually recommended.
• When was the standing rigging last replaced? Once every ten years or so is usually recommended for wire rigging and about fifteen years for rod rigging.
• Where are the main stress points on your rig?
• How do you check the rig alignment?

Running rigging

• When was the running rigging last inspected?
• When should it be replaced?
• What maintenance needs to be done?

Causes of rig failure

While many sailors live in fear of rogue waves and capsize, most dismastings happen either because of equipment failure or operator error. Leaving aside operator error, the main reasons include the failure of chainplates, spreaders, turnbuckles and tangs caused by either metal fatigue, corrosion or a combination of the two.

Chainplate failure is one of the most common causes of dismasting. Chainplates are not easy to inspect as they are hidden from view beneath the deck. Corrosion happens out of sight where the metal cannot be inspected without the plates first being removed.

Other causes are the failure of terminal fittings, clevis pins, cotter pins and all the parts that hold a rig together.

Surprisingly perhaps, the mast and stays are rarely the components that break first and cause a dismasting.           

Stresses and loads

The components of a rig are designed to withstand certain stress levels and loads caused by a boat under sail in varying conditions. The correct adjustment of the rig is important to maintain the rig’s strength and longevity for a number of reasons – not just the boat’s performance and ability to point to windward. These include:

• If the rigging is slack problems can develop as it moves about, causing fatigue.
• Rig components can become weakened by vibrations caused for example as sails flog in strong winds, or by shock loading caused for example by accidental gybes.
• The misalignment of part of a rig can cause other parts to be overloaded resulting in metal fatigue and eventual failure.
• Stress coupled with corrosion will accelerate the potential for rig failure.

Crevice corrosion

Some surface rust on stainless steel rigging is normal and usually polishes off very easily. While stainless steel does not rust in the way that regular steel does, it does suffer from crevice corrosion.

Crevice corrosion occurs because the stainless steel has been deprived of oxygen. As a result its protective oxide film breaks down, allowing chlorides to infiltrate and corrode the metal. This happens around joints and under fastener heads and where pieces of metal are in close contact. Chainplates often suffer from this type of corrosion where they pass through the deck and sea water has saturated the deck core.

Crevice corrosion also takes place where cyclic loading has caused stainless steel to develop hairline cracks on the metal’s surface. Sea water then gets into the cracks and the corrosion slowly takes hold.

  Galvanic corrosion

Aluminium masts with stainless steel fittings are at risk from galvanic corrosion. Galvanic corrosion is the transfer of electrons from one metal (the anode) to another (the cathode). In this case the anode is the aluminium and the cathode is the stainless steel. Positively charged electrons flow from the the anode to the negatively charged cathode. Galvanic corrosion also requires an electrolyte, a liquid that enables the electron flow to take place. In this case salt water is the electrolyte and a very efficient one.

Note: All stainless steel fittings should be insulated from aluminium masts by washers or sealant

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Mast and Standing Rigging Terminology

Upffront.com is all about performance sailing hardware and rigging systems. The heart, and driving force, of any sailing yacht is its mast and standing rigging which support the sails. If you are interested in optimising / upgrading your sailing systems it is important for us to have a common language, so we can share performance improvement ideas and options. In this blog we outline the key terminology of modern masts and rigging.

Mast and standing rigging Overal Layout

The mast tube is nominally (not physically!) split into "Panels", numbered from the deck upwards. Between the deck and the first set of spreaders is “Panel 1”, and between the first and second sets of spreaders is “Panel 2” etc. Spreaders are also numbered from deck upwards – Spreader 1, Spreader 2 and can be further split between port and starboard e.g. Spr1 Stbd.

The standing rigging is the fixed / structural stays which support the mast. These are often split into Fore & aft (forestay and backstay) and then the lateral rigging (side shrouds). In wire rigging world, people often refer to the Cap shroud (running all the way from deck to masthead) and intermediate stays, however when we start talking rod and composite rigging we need to be more explicit and break the lateral rigging elements down in more detail.

Instead of a single cap shroud we have Vertical shrouds (Verticals), numbered as individual elements between the spreaders. The V1 connects the deck chainplate to the tip of the first spreader and the V2 runs between the first and second spreader etc.

Any stay joining the mast is called a Diagonal, and these are again numbered, relative to the mast panel e.g. D1, D2 etc. Across the top spreader there is normally a single stay with no junction i.e. it just bends around the spreader end. This single rod/wire/cable is often referred to as the "Top-span". In the lower half, it is acting as a vertical and then up to the mast it is a diagonal. On a 2-spreader rig this top-span cable is called the V2/D3 and on a 3-spreader rig V3/D4.

Boat Mast Interfaces

Standing rigging attachment points on the mast are called Tangs. There are many different types of tangs and when working on rigging projects it is critical to know what you are dealing with. For example. a forestay tang can be a single plate (Lug), which requires a fork interface, or two plates on the rig (Jaw), designed for an eye fitting. Pin hole diameters, plate thicknesses and overall geometry are all crucial measurements when working with these types of tangs.

The top Diagonal tang is called the Cap tang and the others referred to by the Diagonal number e.g. D2 tang. Again, there are many different types, but most modern yachts will use tangs designed for Stemball end fittings. These will either be fixed to the mast wall - Clamp Tang – or a lower profile, lighter weight solution uses a through-bar system and commonly called a Micro Tang.

It is critically important that you use the correct stemball for your tang. It is standard industry practice to source your stemballs from the same manufacturer as your tangs. The geometry and the radius of the stemball has to exactly match the seat in the tang, to minimize wear and metal fatigue.N.B. The stemball is mounted on the rod prior to cold heading.

Deck Interfaces

The deck attachment points for the standing rigging are called Chainplates. These are key structural elements of any sailing boat and, like the forestay tang, they will generally be either a Lug or a Jaw arrangement. Interestingly, but unsurprisingly, the pin diameters in your chainplates ultimately define most of the hardware specification on your boat. For example – one of the critical specification criteria for any headsail furling system is the forestay chainplate pin diameter.

Masts move......... and articulation is an essential element of any structural rigging joint. The reason stemballs are so popular is that they are essentially a ball joint which allows articulation. For any other mast or deck attachment a Toggle is used to allow articulation in two planes.

N.B. a significant factor in many mast failures will be a mis-aligned mast or deck interface fitting which can lead to rapid metal fatigue. It is therefore important to regularly check the alignment of your mast and deck interface fittings.

Soft Rigging Solutions

Increasingly popular on grand prix race boats is the use of short, soft strops to connect the standing rigging. The beauty of soft connections is that they allow for movement in any direction to perfectly align to the load angle. On some IMOCA 60’s the forestay and cap tangs will simply be two carefully radiused holes in the rig, designed to take a soft strop, either cow-hitched or spliced in situ. If you are retrofitting running backstays or additional checkstays we would encourage you to think “Lash Tang” - which creates a simple, lightweight, reliable mast attachment.

Mast and Standing Rigging Conclusions

Saving weight aloft has major benefits in terms of your boats sailing performance (refer to previous blog on the subject here). There are an increasing number of new materials, technologies and products available which can be retrofitted to an older rig to turbo-charge your faithful ride.

If you would like to explore the options for a retrofit to composite rigging on your boat please use the link below, or contact us at [email protected]

STANDING RIGGING

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Are you looking for... Reliable service Fast delivery High Quality  Think Z SPARS UK

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With 30 years of experience, RIGIT UK is a leading yacht rigging specialist providing comprehensive rigging solutions worldwide from our facilities in Southampton and Chatham. We can design and deliver standing and running yacht rigging systems up to 32 mm in diameter and for vessels up to 100ft. With a full range of deck hardware, rope and auxiliary equipment from industry-leading manufacturers and with our mobile service, we built a reputation for quality, flexibility and attention to detail – your yacht is in safe hands.

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BENETEAU FIRST 305

"The new rigging looks excellent and has been much admired by other owners and yard staff. Will be happy to recommend you and for any prospective customers to look at my rigging."

CONTESSA 32

Have just been on the boat for the first time since you did the rigging and had a great week away. I just wanted to let you know that we think both the rigging and stem head fitting look great. We even think we’re getting an extra knot thanks to the new rig set up! Very many thanks again.

SOUTHERLY 452

I have just had work carried out by Pav and the guys at rigituk on my SO 452. This included new standing rigging,spreaders,inner forestay, guard wires and most of the running rigging. The work was carried out very professionally and Pav was always willing to suggest modifications to fit my budget. 

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Standing Rigging (or ‘Name That Stay’)

Published by rigworks on november 19, 2019.

Question: When your riggers talk about standing rigging, they often use terms I don’t recognize. Can you break it down for me?

From the Rigger: Let’s play ‘Name that Stay’…

Forestay (1 or HS) – The forestay, or headstay, connects the mast to the front (bow) of the boat and keeps your mast from falling aft.

• Your forestay can be full length (masthead to deck) or fractional (1/8 to 1/4 from the top of the mast to the deck).
• Inner forestays, including staysail stays, solent stays and baby stays, connect to the mast below the main forestay and to the deck aft of the main forestay. Inner forestays allow you to hoist small inner headsails and/or provide additional stability to your rig.

Backstay (2 or BS) – The backstay runs from the mast to the back of the boat (transom) and is often adjustable to control forestay tension and the shape of the sails.

• A backstay can be either continuous (direct from mast to transom) or it may split in the lower section (7) with “legs” that ‘V’ out to the edges of the transom.
• Backstays often have hydraulic or manual tensioners built into them to increase forestay tension and bend the mast, which flattens your mainsail.
• Running backstays can be removable, adjustable, and provide additional support and tuning usually on fractional rigs. They run to the outer edges of the transom and are adjusted with each tack. The windward running back is in tension and the leeward is eased so as not to interfere with the boom and sails.
• Checkstays, useful on fractional rigs with bendy masts, are attached well below the backstay and provide aft tension to the mid panels of the mast to reduce mast bend and provide stabilization to reduce the mast from pumping.

Shrouds – Shrouds support the mast from side to side. Shrouds are either continuous or discontinuous .

Continuous rigging, common in production sailboats, means that each shroud (except the lowers) is a continuous piece of material that connects to the mast at some point, passes through the spreaders without terminating, and continues to the deck. There may be a number of continuous shrouds on your boat ( see Figure 1 ).

• Cap shrouds (3) , sometimes called uppers, extend from masthead to the chainplates at the deck.
• Intermediate shrouds (4) extend from mid-mast panel to deck.
• Lower shrouds extend from below the spreader-base to the chainplates. Fore- (5) and Aft-Lowers (6) connect to the deck either forward or aft of the cap shroud.

Discontinuous rigging, common on high performance sailboats, is a series of shorter lengths that terminate in tip cups at each spreader. The diameter of the wire/rod can be reduced in the upper sections where loads are lighter, reducing overall weight. These independent sections are referred to as V# and D# ( see Figure 2 ). For example, V1 is the lowest vertical shroud that extends from the deck to the outer tip of the first spreader. D1 is the lowest diagonal shroud that extends from the deck to the mast at the base of the first spreader. The highest section that extends from the upper spreader to the mast head may be labeled either V# or D#.

A sailboat’s standing rigging is generally built from wire rope, rod, or occasionally a super-strong synthetic fibered rope such as Dyneema ® , carbon fiber, kevlar or PBO.

• 1×19 316 grade stainless steel Wire Rope (1 group of 19 wires, very stiff with low stretch) is standard on most sailboats. Wire rope is sized/priced by its diameter which varies from boat to boat, 3/16” through 1/2″ being the most common range.
• 1×19 Compact Strand or Dyform wire, a more expensive alternative, is used to increase strength, reduce stretch, and minimize diameter on high performance boats such as catamarans. It is also the best alternative when replacing rod with wire.
• Rod rigging offers lower stretch, longer life expectancy, and higher breaking strength than wire. Unlike wire rope, rod is defined by its breaking strength, usually ranging from -10 to -40 (approx. 10k to 40k breaking strength), rather than diameter. So, for example, we refer to 7/16” wire (diameter) vs. -10 Rod (breaking strength).
• Composite Rigging is a popular option for racing boats. It offers comparable breaking strengths to wire and rod with a significant reduction in weight and often lower stretch.

Are your eyes crossing yet? This is probably enough for now, but stay tuned for our next ‘Ask the Rigger’. We will continue this discussion with some of the fittings/connections/hardware associated with your standing rigging.

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Annapolis Rigging is a full service Yacht Mast and Rigging company operated by accomplished sailors with 40 plus years experience in the rigging of sailboats.  We are a industry leader in Mast and Rigging services; construction, design, installation and servicing custom masts, booms and rigging for high performance racing and cruising yachts.

Conveniently located in Bert Jabin Yacht Yard, Annapolis Rigging has direct access to Travel lifts and Mast lift cranes. Our 4,000 sq ft workshop is only a hundred yards from the water. We have both inside & outdoor storage. With state of the art rod and swage rigging equipment, full fabrication, machine shop facilities and a state of the art inside painting booth means we can tackle any sailboat rigging project large and small.

Annapolis rigging is also the home for Windblown Products. Our expertise in rigging has led us to develop some of the best accessories to the sail boat market, including the Button shackle and the best Mast boot. Windblown web site .

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Just in 10 minutes!			Forget your paper catalogs! LOGIN : PASSWORD : Visit Our Blog about Russia to know more about Russian sights, history Check out our Russian cities and regions guides Follow us on Twitter and Facebook to better understand Russia Info about getting Russian visa , the main airports , how to rent an apartment Our Expert answers your questions about Russia, some tips about sending flowers Russian regions Amur oblast Buryat republic Chukotka okrug Jewish autonomous oblast Kamchatka krai Khabarovsk krai Komsomolsk-on-Amur Magadan oblast Primorye krai Sakha republic Sakhalin oblast Zabaikalsky krai Map of Russia All cities and regions Blog about Russia News from Russia How to get a visa Flights to Russia Russian hotels Renting apartments Russian currency FIFA World Cup 2018 Submit an article Flowers to Russia Ask our Expert Khabarovsk Krai, Russia The capital city of Khabarovsk krai: Khabarovsk . Khabarovsk Krai - Overview Khabarovsk Krai is a federal subject of Russia located in the center of the Russian Far East, part of the Far Eastern Federal District. Khabarovsk is the capital city of the region. The population of Khabarovsk Krai is about 1,299,000 (2022), the area - 787,633 sq. km. Khabarovsk krai flag Khabarovsk krai coat of arms. Khabarovsk krai map, Russia Khabarovsk krai latest news and posts from our blog:. 25 August, 2017 / Russian banknotes and the sights depicted on them . 1 August, 2017 / Khabarovsk - the view from above . 21 December, 2016 / Flying over diverse Russia . 21 April, 2013 / Khabarovsk - the center of the Russian Far East . 16 January, 2011 / Siberian tiger walking the highway . More posts.. History of Khabarovsk Krai In the Middle Ages, the territory of today’s Khabarovsk Krai was inhabited mainly by the peoples of the Tungus-Manchu language group, as well as Nivkhs. In China they were known collectively as “wild Jurchen”. In the 13th-14th centuries, the Mongol rulers of China repeatedly organized expeditions to the lower Amur. Russians began the development of the Far East in the 17th century. In 1639, a Cossack troop headed by Ivan Moskvitin reached the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. The first stockade town was built in the mouth of the Ulya River. Later, Vasily Danilovich Poyarkov and Yerofei Pavlovich Khabarov were the first who started joining the Amur lands to Russia. Before Russians came here, the tribes of Daurs, Evenks, Natks, Gilyaks and others lived in this area (only about 30 thousand people). The area was quickly populated by Russian settlers; new stockade towns were founded. But the process was interrupted due to a conflict with the Qing Dynasty. From the 1680s, Manchus started to fight against the Russian state. More Historical Facts… Russia could not move significant military forces to the Amur region and had to sign the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689). According to it, Russians had to leave the left bank of the Amur River but managed to uphold its rights for the area behind Lake Baikal and the Sea of Okhotsk coast. In the 18th century, Okhotsk became the main Pacific port of the Russian Empire. Development of the northern coast of the Pacific, exploration of the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin prepared the basis for the return of the Amur region. In 1847, Nikolai Nikolayevich Muravyov was appointed a governor-general of Eastern Siberia. He did his best to return the Amur area to the Russian Empire. The number of Russians in the region began to grow. In 1858, the town of Khabarovsk was founded. As a result of the weakening of China during the Opium Wars, two agreements were signed - the Aigun Treaty in 1858 and the Beijing Treaty in 1860. The Russian-Chinese border was established on the Amur and Ussuri rivers. In 1884, Zabaikalskaya, Amurskaya and Primorskaya regions were united into Priamurskoye region with the center in Khabarovsk. Until the late 19th century, the Amur area was settled slowly. The situation changed in the early 20th century. In 1900, the Trans-Baikal Railway was opened, in 1902 - the Chinese Eastern Railway. As a result, the number of settlers grew rapidly. In 1900-1913, about 300,000 peasants from other regions of the Russian Empire came to the Amur area. There were three towns (Khabarovsk, Nikolayevsk-on-Amur and Okhotsk) on the territory, which makes Khabarovsk krai today. By 1915, there were more than six thousand settlements with a total population of 316,300 people in Primorskaya oblast. The Civil War lead to a great number of deaths and economic collapse in Russia. The restoration of pre-war level of economy was achieved by 1926. New cities were built in the region - Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Birobidzhan. October 20, 1938, Dalnevostochny region was divided into Khabarovsky and Primorsky regions. In 1947-1948, Sakhalin and Amur regions were separated from Dalnevostochny region. In 1953, Magadan region was formed and separated from Dalnevostochny region. In 1956, Kamchatka region became independent too. In 1991, the Jewish autonomous region was separated from Dalnevostochny region. Nature of Khabarovsk Krai Khabarovsk Krai scenery Author: Alexander Semyonov Khabarovsk Krai landscape Author: Alexander Makharov Lake in Khabarovsk Krai Author: Ezerskiy Feliks Khabarovsk Krai - Features Khabarovsk Krai is one of the largest administrative-territorial units of the Russian Federation. The territory of the region stretches for about 1,800 kilometers from north to south, and for 125-750 km from west to east. The distance from Khabarovsk to Moscow is 8,533 km by rail, 8,385 by roads and 6,075 km by air. Part of the southern boundary of the Khabarovsk region is the state border of Russia with China. The province is washed by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan. The coastline extension is 3,390 km, including islands, the largest of them are Shantarsky Islands. The highest point is Berill Mountain (2,933 meters). The climate of the region changes from north to south. Winters are long and snowy. The average temperature in January is in the range of minus 22-40 degrees Celsius, on the coast - minus 18-24 degrees Celsius. Summers are hot and humid. The average temperature in July is about plus 15-20 degrees Celsius. In general, Khabarovsk Krai is one of the most sparsely populated regions of Russia, which is due, firstly, the general economic decline of the post-Soviet time, and secondly - the severity of the local climate, comparable with the regions of the Far North. The largest cities and towns are Khabarovsk (613,500), Komsomolsk-on-Amur (239,400) Amursk (38,200), Sovetskaya Gavan (22,900), Nikolaevsk-on-Amur (17,400), Bikin (15,900). Khabarovsk Krai - Economy and Transport The main branches of the local economy are mechanical engineering and metalworking, ferrous metallurgy, mining, fishing, food, light and timber industries. The mineral resources of the region include gold, tin, aluminum, iron, coal and lignite, graphite. The main highways of Khabarovsk Krai are M60 “Ussuri” (Khabarovsk - Ussuriysk - Vladivostok) and M58 “Amur” (Chita - Never - Svobodny - Arkhara - Birobidzhan - Khabarovsk). The railway station “Khabarovsk-2” is a large railway hub. The directions are as follows: to the south (to Vladivostok and Port Vostochny), to the west (to Moscow) and to the north (to Komsomolsk-on-Amur). The river port in Khabarovsk is the largest on the Amur River. The other river ports of the region are located in Komsomolsk and Nikolayevsk. The sea ports of the region are Okhotsk, Ayan, Nikolayevsk-on-Amur, Vanino, Sovetskaya Gavan. Tourism in Khabarovsk Krai The rich natural potential of the region provides endless opportunities for the development of ecological tourism. You can see reindeer, brown and Himalayan bears, bighorn sheep and even the Siberian tigers on the territory of Khabarovsk krai. The Amur River is the main attraction of the region. Most of natural, cultural and historical tourist sites are concentrated in the valley of this river. Shantarsky Islands, one of the most beautiful and unique places of unspoiled nature, are another natural attraction of this region. The inaccessibility of the islands allowed to preserve pristine nature. Shantarsky Islands are a habitat of whales, seals, killer whales. It is a great place for fishing. If you prefer ethnographic tourism, you may be interested in cave paintings located near the Nanai village of Sikachi-Alyan and Lake Bolon, which is a large bird sanctuary. In the past, there were a Buddhist temple and ancient settlements in the vicinity of the lake. Lovers of adventure tourism may be interested in rafting, fishing tours, caving and winter recreation. The best time for tourism in Khabarovsk krai: “late spring - early summer”, “end of summer - early fall.” The largest international airport in the region is located in Khabarovsk. The flights to Moscow, Vladivostok, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Novosibirsk, Yakutsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Bangkok, Seoul, Harbin are available. Khabarovsk krai of Russia photos Pictures of khabarovsk krai. Author: Sergey Kotelnikov Author: Evgeniy Lopatin Forest in Khabarovsk Krai Winter in Khabarovsk Krai Author: Volman Michail The questions of our visitors The comments of our visitors. Currently 2.89/5 Rating: 2.9 /5 (166 votes cast) Khabarovsk Krai Хабаровский край Coordinates: 136°50′E / 54.800°N 136.833°E / 54.800; 136.833 Country Administrative center Government  • Body  •  (acting) Area  • Total 787,633 km (304,107 sq mi)  • Rank Population ( )  • Total 1,292,944  • Estimate  1,328,302  • Rank  • Density 1.6/km (4.3/sq mi)  •  83.4%  •  16.6% (   ) RU-KHA 27 ID 08000000 Official languages Website Administrative divisions Heavy industry, demographics, ethnic groups, settlements, sister relations, external links. Being dominated by the Siberian High winter cold, the continental climates of the krai see extreme freezing for an area adjacent to the sea near the mid-latitudes, but also warm summers in the interior. The southern region lies mostly in the basin of the lower Amur River , with the mouth of the river located at Nikolaevsk-on-Amur draining into the Strait of Tartary , which separates Khabarovsk Krai from the island of Sakhalin . The north occupies a vast mountainous area along the coastline of the Sea of Okhotsk , a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean . Khabarovsk Krai is bordered by Magadan Oblast to the north; Amur Oblast , Jewish Autonomous Oblast , and the Sakha Republic to the west; Primorsky Krai to the south; and Sakhalin Oblast to the east. The population consists of mostly ethnic Russians , but indigenous people of the area are numerous, such as the Tungusic peoples ( Evenks , Negidals , Ulchs , Nanai , Oroch , Udege ), Amur Nivkhs , and Ainu . [10] Khabarovsk Krai shares its borders with Magadan Oblast in the north; with the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast in the west; with the Jewish Autonomous Oblast , China ( Heilongjiang ), and Primorsky Krai in the south; and is limited by the Sea of Okhotsk in the east. In terms of area, it is the fourth-largest federal subject within Russia. Major islands include the Shantar Islands . Taiga and tundra in the north, swampy forest in the central depression, and deciduous forest in the south are the natural vegetation in the area. The main rivers are the Amur , Amgun , Uda , and Tugur , among others. There are also lakes such as Bokon , Bolon , Chukchagir , Evoron , Kizi , Khummi , Orel , and Udyl , among others. [11] Khabarovsk Krai has a severely continental climate with its northern areas being subarctic with stronger maritime summer moderation in the north. In its southerly areas, especially inland, annual swings are extremely strong, with Khabarovsk itself having hot, wet, and humid summers which rapidly transform into severely cold and long winters, where temperatures hardly ever go above freezing. This is because of the influence of the East Asian monsoon in summer and the bitterly cold Siberian High in winter. The second-largest city of Komsomolsk-on-Amur has even more violent temperature swings than Khabarovsk, with winter average lows below −30   °C (−22   °F) , but in spite of this, avoiding being subarctic because of the significant heat in summer. The main mountain ranges in the region are the Bureya Range , the Badzhal Range (highest point 2,221 metres (7,287   ft) high, the Gora Ulun ), the Yam-Alin , the Dusse-Alin , the Sikhote-Alin , the Dzhugdzhur Mountains , the Kondyor Massif , as well as a small section of the Suntar-Khayata Range , the Yudoma-Maya Highlands , and the Sette-Daban in the western border regions. The highest point is 2,933 metres (9,623   ft) high, Berill Mountain . [12] [13] There are a number of peninsulas along the krai's extensive coast, the main ones being (north to south) the Lisyansky Peninsula , Nurki Peninsula , Tugurskiy Peninsula , and the Tokhareu Peninsula . The main islands of Khabarovsk Krai (north to south) are Malminskiye Island , the Shantar Islands , Menshikov Island , Reyneke Island (Sea of Okhotsk) , Chkalov Island , Baydukov Island , and the Chastye Islands . The island of Sakhalin (Russia's largest) is administered separately as Sakhalin Oblast , along with the Kuril Islands . The charts below detail climate averages from various locations in the krai. Khabarovsk is set near the Chinese border at a lower latitude far inland, while Komsomolsk-on-Amur being further downstream on the Amur river at a higher latitude. Sovetskaya Gavan and Okhotsk are coastal settlements in the deep south and far north, respectively. Climate data for (1991–2020, extremes 1878–2023) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 0.6 (33.1) 6.3 (43.3) 17.0 (62.6) 28.6 (83.5) 31.5 (88.7) 36.4 (97.5) 35.7 (96.3) 35.6 (96.1) 29.8 (85.6) 26.4 (79.5) 15.5 (59.9) 6.6 (43.9) 36.4 (97.5) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −14.9 (5.2) −9.9 (14.2) −1.0 (30.2) 10.5 (50.9) 19.2 (66.6) 23.8 (74.8) 26.8 (80.2) 24.9 (76.8) 19.7 (67.5) 10.6 (51.1) −2.8 (27.0) −13.6 (7.5) 7.8 (46.0) Daily mean °C (°F) −19.2 (−2.6) −14.9 (5.2) −5.9 (21.4) 4.8 (40.6) 12.9 (55.2) 18.0 (64.4) 21.4 (70.5) 19.9 (67.8) 14.1 (57.4) 5.4 (41.7) −6.9 (19.6) −17.4 (0.7) 2.7 (36.9) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −23.1 (−9.6) −19.6 (−3.3) −10.7 (12.7) −0.1 (31.8) 7.3 (45.1) 12.8 (55.0) 16.8 (62.2) 15.7 (60.3) 9.4 (48.9) 1.0 (33.8) −10.4 (13.3) −20.9 (−5.6) −1.8 (28.8) Record low °C (°F) −40.0 (−40.0) −35.1 (−31.2) −28.9 (−20.0) −15.1 (4.8) −3.1 (26.4) 2.2 (36.0) 6.8 (44.2) 4.9 (40.8) −3.3 (26.1) −15.6 (3.9) −27.7 (−17.9) −38.1 (−36.6) −40.0 (−40.0) Average mm (inches) 13 (0.5) 12 (0.5) 22 (0.9) 37 (1.5) 70 (2.8) 84 (3.3) 137 (5.4) 143 (5.6) 85 (3.3) 48 (1.9) 26 (1.0) 19 (0.7) 696 (27.4) Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) 14 (5.5) 16 (6.3) 12 (4.7) 1 (0.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.4) 5 (2.0) 10 (3.9) 16 (6.3) Average rainy days 0 0 1 10 16 15 15 17 15 11 2 0 102 Average snowy days 14 11 11 6 1 0 0 0 0.1 4 12 14 73 Average (%) 75 72 68 63 65 74 79 83 78 67 69 73 72 Mean monthly 147 181 231 213 242 262 248 217 212 189 159 145 2,446 Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net Source 2: NOAA (sun, 1961–1990) Climate data for Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 0.7 (33.3) 0.0 (32.0) 13.6 (56.5) 23.9 (75.0) 31.0 (87.8) 33.2 (91.8) 36.2 (97.2) 38.0 (100.4) 30.0 (86.0) 20.5 (68.9) 8.3 (46.9) 1.0 (33.8) 38.0 (100.4) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −19.6 (−3.3) −13.9 (7.0) −4.0 (24.8) 7.5 (45.5) 16.1 (61.0) 22.8 (73.0) 25.1 (77.2) 23.4 (74.1) 17.1 (62.8) 7.4 (45.3) −6.4 (20.5) −17.2 (1.0) 4.6 (40.3) Daily mean °C (°F) −24.7 (−12.5) −19.8 (−3.6) −9.5 (14.9) 2.3 (36.1) 10.4 (50.7) 17.3 (63.1) 20.3 (68.5) 18.5 (65.3) 11.9 (53.4) 2.5 (36.5) −10.5 (13.1) −21.8 (−7.2) −0.6 (30.9) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −30.8 (−23.4) −27.2 (−17.0) −17.1 (1.2) −3.4 (25.9) 3.7 (38.7) 10.8 (51.4) 15.2 (59.4) 13.5 (56.3) 6.4 (43.5) −2.9 (26.8) −16.1 (3.0) −27.4 (−17.3) −6.6 (20.1) Record low °C (°F) −47.0 (−52.6) −42.0 (−43.6) −33.9 (−29.0) −20.8 (−5.4) −7.5 (18.5) −2.2 (28.0) 0.0 (32.0) −8.9 (16.0) −6.0 (21.2) −22.0 (−7.6) −34.0 (−29.2) −42.0 (−43.6) −47.0 (−52.6) Average mm (inches) 30 (1.2) 19 (0.7) 30 (1.2) 43 (1.7) 63 (2.5) 65 (2.6) 95 (3.7) 110 (4.3) 74 (2.9) 62 (2.4) 49 (1.9) 32 (1.3) 672 (26.4) Average precipitation days 14 12 13 15 15 13 15 14 14 13 16 15 169 Average rainy days 0 0 1 7 14 13 15 14 14 8 1 0 87 Average snowy days 14 12 13 11 3 0 0 0 0 8 15 15 91 Source 1: climatebase.ru Source 2: Weatherbase Climate data for (1914–2012) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 2.6 (36.7) 12.2 (54.0) 18.9 (66.0) 25.1 (77.2) 31.8 (89.2) 35.1 (95.2) 34.2 (93.6) 35.8 (96.4) 30.2 (86.4) 26.8 (80.2) 16.5 (61.7) 9.4 (48.9) 35.8 (96.4) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −11.4 (11.5) −8.3 (17.1) −1.8 (28.8) 5.6 (42.1) 11.6 (52.9) 16.8 (62.2) 20.5 (68.9) 21.9 (71.4) 18.2 (64.8) 10.9 (51.6) 0.0 (32.0) −8.7 (16.3) 6.3 (43.3) Daily mean °C (°F) −16.8 (1.8) −14.2 (6.4) −7.4 (18.7) 1.1 (34.0) 6.6 (43.9) 11.5 (52.7) 15.6 (60.1) 17.4 (63.3) 13.3 (55.9) 6.0 (42.8) −4.7 (23.5) −13.5 (7.7) 1.3 (34.3) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −22.2 (−8.0) −20.1 (−4.2) −12.9 (8.8) −3.5 (25.7) 1.5 (34.7) 6.2 (43.2) 10.7 (51.3) 12.9 (55.2) 8.4 (47.1) 1.0 (33.8) −9.3 (15.3) −18.3 (−0.9) −3.8 (25.2) Record low °C (°F) −40.0 (−40.0) −38.6 (−37.5) −30.3 (−22.5) −26.4 (−15.5) −9.5 (14.9) −3.0 (26.6) 2.4 (36.3) 4.0 (39.2) −1.7 (28.9) −14.7 (5.5) −31.3 (−24.3) −38.4 (−37.1) −40.0 (−40.0) Average mm (inches) 19.9 (0.78) 20.7 (0.81) 42.9 (1.69) 47.5 (1.87) 73.9 (2.91) 70.1 (2.76) 82.1 (3.23) 109.6 (4.31) 117.2 (4.61) 87.7 (3.45) 43.4 (1.71) 32.7 (1.29) 747.7 (29.42) Average precipitation days 6.8 7.0 9.6 10.3 13.2 12.9 13.4 14.7 13.1 9.2 6.1 6.6 122.9 Source: Climate data for (1991−2020 normals, extremes 1891–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 5.5 (41.9) 2.0 (35.6) 6.4 (43.5) 16.0 (60.8) 26.2 (79.2) 31.3 (88.3) 31.0 (87.8) 32.1 (89.8) 24.8 (76.6) 15.7 (60.3) 6.2 (43.2) 2.8 (37.0) 32.1 (89.8) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −16.8 (1.8) −14.2 (6.4) −6.3 (20.7) 0.4 (32.7) 6.2 (43.2) 11.4 (52.5) 15.7 (60.3) 17.1 (62.8) 12.9 (55.2) 2.7 (36.9) −9.7 (14.5) −16.4 (2.5) 0.3 (32.5) Daily mean °C (°F) −19.9 (−3.8) −18.5 (−1.3) −12.1 (10.2) −3.8 (25.2) 2.6 (36.7) 8.1 (46.6) 12.9 (55.2) 13.7 (56.7) 8.9 (48.0) −1.2 (29.8) −12.7 (9.1) −19.0 (−2.2) −3.4 (25.9) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −22.7 (−8.9) −22.2 (−8.0) −17.8 (0.0) −8.2 (17.2) −0.2 (31.6) 5.7 (42.3) 10.6 (51.1) 10.6 (51.1) 4.9 (40.8) −4.6 (23.7) −15.3 (4.5) −21.4 (−6.5) −6.7 (19.9) Record low °C (°F) −41.3 (−42.3) −45.7 (−50.3) −36.9 (−34.4) −29.2 (−20.6) −16.0 (3.2) −2.6 (27.3) 1.7 (35.1) −0.1 (31.8) −6.6 (20.1) −27.5 (−17.5) −37.4 (−35.3) −37.7 (−35.9) −45.7 (−50.3) Average mm (inches) 15 (0.6) 7 (0.3) 16 (0.6) 24 (0.9) 40 (1.6) 55 (2.2) 85 (3.3) 94 (3.7) 92 (3.6) 66 (2.6) 32 (1.3) 14 (0.6) 540 (21.3) Average rainy days 0.1 0.2 0.3 2 11 16 18 15 16 7 1 0.2 87 Average snowy days 9 9 11 13 10 0.4 0 0 0.3 9 11 8 81 Average (%) 63 63 68 77 84 88 89 86 80 70 66 63 75 Mean monthly 86 147 241 230 195 200 179 182 172 157 107 54 1,950 Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net Source 2: (sun 1961–1990) According to various Chinese and Korean records, the southern part of Khabarovsk Krai was originally occupied by one of the five semi-nomadic Shiwei , the Bo Shiwei tribes, and the Black Water Mohe tribes living, respectively, on the west and the east of the Bureya and the Lesser Khingan ranges. In 1643, Vassili Poyarkov 's boats descended the Amur , returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Aldan River , and in 1649–1650, Yerofey Khabarov occupied the banks of the Amur. The resistance of the Chinese, however, obliged the Cossacks to quit their forts, and by the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), Russia abandoned its advance into the basin of the river. Although the Russians were thus deprived of the right to navigate the Amur River, the territorial claim over the lower courses of the river was not settled in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689. The area between the Uda River and the Greater Khingan mountain range (i.e. most of Lower Amuria) was left undemarcated and the Sino-Russian border was allowed to fluctuate. [20] [21] Later in the nineteenth century, Nikolay Muravyov conducted an aggressive policy with China by claiming that the lower reaches of the Amur River belonged to Russia . In 1852, a Russian military expedition under Muravyov explored the Amur, and by 1857, a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants had been settled along the whole course of the river. In 1858, in the Treaty of Aigun , China recognized the Amur River downstream as far as the Ussuri River as the boundary between Russia and the Qing Empire, and granted Russia free access to the Pacific Ocean. [22] The Sino-Russian border was later further delineated in the Treaty of Peking of 1860 when the Ussuri Territory (the Maritime Territory ), which was previously a joint possession, became Russian. [23] Khabarovsk Krai was established on 20 October 1938, when the Far Eastern Krai was split into the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais . [24] Kamchatka Oblast , which was originally subordinated to the Far Eastern Krai, fell under the Jurisdiction of Khabarovsk Krai, along with its two National Okrugs, Chukotka and Koryak . In 1947, the northern part of Sakhalin was removed from the Krai to join the southern part and form Sakhalin Oblast . In 1948, parts of its southwestern territories were removed from the Krai to form Amur Oblast . In 1953, Magadan Oblast was established from the northern parts of the Krai and was given jurisdiction over Chukotka National Okrug, which was originally under the jurisdiction of Kamchatka oblast. In 1956, Kamchatka Oblast became its own region and took Koryak National Okrug with it. The Krai took its modern form in 1991, just before the USSR's collapse when the Jewish Autonomous Oblast was created within its territory. On 24 April 1996, Khabarovsk signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. [25] This agreement would be abolished on 12 August 2002. [26] During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Khabarovsk CPSU Committee (who, in reality, had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor, was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament . The Charter of Khabarovsk Krai is the fundamental law of the krai. The Legislative Duma of Khabarovsk Krai is the regional standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Duma exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Krai Government, which includes territorial executive bodies, such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Krai Administration supports the activities of the Governor , who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia . On 9 July 2020, the governor of the region, Sergei Furgal , was arrested and flown to Moscow. The 2020 Khabarovsk Krai protests began on 11 July 2020, in support of Furgal. [27] Khabarovsk Krai is the most industrialized territory of the Far East of Russia, producing 30% of the total industrial products in the Far Eastern Economic Region. The machine construction industry consists primarily of a highly developed military–industrial complex of large-scale aircraft- and shipbuilding enterprises. [28] The Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association is currently among the krai's most successful enterprises, and for years has been the largest taxpayer of the territory. [28] Other major industries include timber-working and fishing , along with metallurgy in the main cities. Komsomolsk-on-Amur is the iron and steel centre of the Far East; a pipeline from northern Sakhalin supplies the petroleum-refining industry in the city of Khabarovsk . In the Amur basin, there is also some cultivation of wheat and soybeans . The administrative centre , Khabarovsk, is at the junction of the Amur River and the Trans-Siberian Railway . The region's mineral resources are relatively underdeveloped. Khabarovsk Krai contains large gold mining operations (Highland Gold, Polus Gold), a major but low-grade copper deposit being explored by IG Integro Group , and a world-class tin district which was a major contributor to the Soviet industrial complex and is currently being revitalised by Far Eastern Tin (Festivalnoye mine) and by Sable Tin Resources Archived March 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine , which is developing the Sable Tin Deposit (Sobolinoye) , a large high-grade deposit, 25   km from Solnechny town. Historical population Year 1926 184,700 —     1939 657,400 +255.9% 1959 979,679 +49.0% 1970 1,173,458 +19.8% 1979 1,369,277 +16.7% 1989 1,597,373 +16.7% 2002 1,436,570 −10.1% 2010 1,343,869 −6.5% 2021 1,292,944 −3.8% Source: Census data Population : 1,292,944   ( 2021 Census ) ; [29] 1,343,869   ( 2010 Russian census ) ; [9] 1,436,570   ( 2002 Census ) ; [30] 1,824,506   ( 1989 Soviet census ) . [31] Ethnicities in Khabarovsk Krai in 2021 Ethnicity Population Percentage 1,047,221 92.9% 10,813 1.0% 7,170 0.6% 4,332 0.4% 3,740 0.3% 3,709 0.3% Other Ethnicities 50,780 3.9% Ethnicity not stated 165,179 – Vital statistics for 2022: [33] [34] Births: 12,404 (9.6 per 1,000) Deaths: 18,209 (14.0 per 1,000) Total fertility rate (2022): [35] 1.50 children per woman Life expectancy (2021): [36] Total — 67.85 years (male   — 62.91, female   — 72.94) Rank Pop. 1 577,441 2 263,906 3 42,970 4 22,752 5 27,712 6 17,154 7 17,001 8 14,555 9 13,306 10 13,048 Religion in Krai Oblast as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) 26.2% Other 1.3% 0.5% Other 3.7% 1.1% and other native faiths 0.5% 27.9% and 23.1% Other and undeclared 15.7% According to a 2012 survey, [37] 26.2% of the population of Khabarovsk Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church , 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians , 1% adhere to other Orthodox churches or are believers in Orthodox Christianity who do not belong to any church, while 1% are adherents of Islam . In addition, 28% of the population declared to be "spiritual but not religious", 23% are atheist , and 16.8% follow other religions or did not give an answer to the question. [37] There are the following institutions of higher education in Khabarovsk Krai. [39] [40] Pacific National University Far Eastern State University of Humanities Far Eastern State Medical University Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law   [ ru ] Far Eastern State Transport University Far Eastern Academy of Government Services Far Eastern State Physical Education University Khabarovsk State Institute of Arts and Culture Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Pedagogical institute Amur Khabarovsk , a professional hockey club of the international Kontinental Hockey League and plays its home games at the Platinum Arena . FC SKA-Energiya Khabarovsk is a professional association football team playing in the Russian Football National League , the second tier of Russian association football. SKA-Neftyanik is a professional bandy club which plays in the top-tier Russian Bandy Super League at its own indoor venue Arena Yerofey . In the 2016–17 season , the club became Russian champion for the first time. [41] The city was a host to the 1981 Bandy World Championship as well as to the 2015 Bandy World Championship . For the 2015 games, twenty-one teams originally were expected, which would have been four more than the record-making seventeen from the 2014 tournament , but eventually, only sixteen teams came. The A Division of the 2018 Bandy World Championship was again to be played in Khabarovsk. [42] List of Chairmen of the Legislative Duma of Khabarovsk Krai Tourism in Khabarovsk Krai Related Research Articles Amur Oblast is a federal subject of Russia, located on the banks of the Amur and Zeya rivers in the Russian Far East. Amur Oblast borders Heilongjiang province of the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the south. Okha is a town and the administrative center of Okhinsky District of Sakhalin Oblast, Russia. Population: 23,008 (2010 Russian census) ; 27,963 (2002 Census) ; 36,104 (1989 Soviet census) . Sakhalin Oblast is a federal subject of Russia comprising the island of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in the Russian Far East. The oblast has an area of 87,100 square kilometers (33,600 sq mi). Its administrative center and largest city is Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. As of the 2021 Census, the oblast has a population of 466,609. Magadan Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. It is geographically located in the Far East region of the country, and is administratively part of the Far Eastern Federal District. Magadan Oblast has a population of 136,085, making it the least populated oblast and the third-least populated federal subject in Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur is a city in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located on the west bank of the Amur River in the Russian Far East. It is located on the Baikal-Amur Mainline, 356 kilometers (221 mi) northeast of Khabarovsk. Population: 238,505 (2021 Census) ; 263,906 (2010 Russian census) ; 281,035 (2002 Census) ; 315,325 (1989 Soviet census) . Nikolayevsk-on-Amur is a town in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia located on the Amur River close to its liman in the Pacific Ocean. Population: 22,752 (2010 Russian census) ; 28,492 (2002 Census) ; 36,296 (1989 Soviet census) . Sovetskaya Gavan is a town in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, and a port on the Strait of Tartary which connects the Sea of Okhotsk in the north with the Sea of Japan in the south. Population: 27,712 (2010 Russian census) ; 30,480 (2002 Census) ; 34,915 (1989 Soviet census) . Kamchatka Krai is a federal subject of Russia, situated in the Russian Far East. It is administratively part of the Far Eastern Federal District. Its administrative center and largest city is Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, home to over half of its population of 291,705. Amursk is a town in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located on the left bank of the Amur River 45 kilometers (28 mi) south of Komsomolsk-on-Amur. Population: 42,970 (2010 Russian census) ; 47,759 (2002 Census) ; 58,395 (1989 Soviet census) . Poronaysk is a town and the administrative center of Poronaysky District of Sakhalin Oblast, Russia, located on the Poronay River 288 kilometers (179 mi) north of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. Population: 16,120 (2010 Russian census) ; 17,954 (2002 Census) ; 25,971 (1989 Soviet census) . Ayano-Maysky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the seventeen in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the north of the krai. The area of the district is 167,200 square kilometers (64,600 sq mi). Its administrative center is the rural locality of Ayan. Population: 2,292 (2010 Russian census) ; 3,271 (2002 Census) ; 4,802 (1989 Soviet census) . The population of Ayan accounts for 42.2% of the district's total population. Zabaykalsky Krai is a federal subject of Russia, located in the Russian Far East. Its administrative center is Chita. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 1,107,107. Fevralsk is an urban locality in Selemdzhinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, located between the Selemdzha River and its tributary the Byssa, about 340 kilometers (210 mi) northeast of Blagoveshchensk, the oblast's administrative center, and 204 kilometers (127 mi) southwest of Ekimchan, the administrative center of the district. Population: 5,128 (2010 Russian census) ; 4,690 (2002 Census) ; 8,816 (1989 Soviet census) . Novy Urgal is an urban locality in Verkhnebureinsky District of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located in the valley of the Bureya River, close to its confluence with the Urgal River, about 340 kilometers (210 mi) northwest of the krai's administrative center of Khabarovsk and 28 kilometers (17 mi) west of the district's administrative center of Chegdomyn. Population: 6,803 (2010 Russian census) ; 7,274 (2002 Census) ; 9,126 (1989 Soviet census) . Komsomolsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the seventeen in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the southern central part of the krai. The area of the district is 25,167 square kilometers (9,717 sq mi). Its administrative center is the city of Komsomolsk-on-Amur. Population: 29,072 (2010 Russian census) ; 31,563 (2002 Census) ; 33,649 (1989 Soviet census) . Nikolayevsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the seventeen in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the east of the krai. The area of the district is 17,188 square kilometers (6,636 sq mi). Its administrative center is the town of Nikolayevsk-on-Amur. Population: 9,942 (2010 Russian census) ; 13,850 (2002 Census) ; 19,683 (1989 Soviet census) . Okhotsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the seventeen in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the north of the krai. The area of the district is 158,517.8 square kilometers (61,204.1 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Okhotsk. Population: 8,197 (2010 Russian census) ; 12,017 (2002 Census) ; 19,183 (1989 Soviet census) . The population of Okhotsk accounts for 51.4% of the district's total population. Tuguro-Chumikansky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the seventeen in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located in the center of the krai. The area of the district is 96,069 square kilometers (37,092 sq mi). Its administrative center is the rural locality of Chumikan. Population: 2,255 (2010 Russian census) ; 2,860 (2002 Census) ; 3,610 (1989 Soviet census) . The population of Chumikan accounts for 47.0% of the district's total population. Smidovichsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the five in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia. It is located in the east of the autonomous oblast and borders Khabarovsk Krai in the north and east, China in the south, and Birobidzhansky District in the west. The area of the district is 5,900 square kilometers (2,300 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Smidovich. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 28,165, with the population of Smidovich accounting for 18.2% of that number. Selikhino is a rural locality in Komsomolsky District of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. Population: 4,255 (2010 Russian census) ; 4,865 (2002 Census) . ↑ Президент Российской Федерации.   Указ   №849   от   13 мая 2000 г. «О полномочном представителе Президента Российской Федерации в федеральном округе». Вступил в силу   13 мая 2000 г. Опубликован: "Собрание законодательства РФ", No.   20, ст. 2112, 15 мая 2000 г. (President of the Russian Federation.   Decree   # 849   of   May 13, 2000 On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in a Federal District . Effective as of   May 13, 2000.). ↑ Госстандарт Российской Федерации.   №ОК 024-95   27 декабря 1995 г. «Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов. 2.   Экономические районы», в ред. Изменения №5/2001 ОКЭР. ( Gosstandart of the Russian Federation.   # OK 024-95   December 27, 1995 Russian Classification of Economic Regions. 2.   Economic Regions , as amended by the Amendment   # 5/2001 OKER. ). 1 2 Charter of Khabarovsk Krai, Article   4 ↑ "Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации" . Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved September 1, 2022 . ↑ "26. Численность постоянного населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2018 года" . Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved January 23, 2019 . ↑ "Об исчислении времени" . Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). June 3, 2011 . Retrieved January 19, 2019 . ↑ Official throughout the Russian Federation according to Article   68.1 of the Constitution of Russia . 1 2 Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том   1 [ 2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol.   1 ] . Всероссийская перепись населения 2010   года [2010 All-Russia Population Census] (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service . ↑ Chaussonnet, p.109 ↑ Topographic map N-53; M 1: 1,000,00 ↑ Khabarovsk Krai Mountains - PeakVisor ↑ Google Earth ↑ "Pogoda.ru.net" (in Russian) . Retrieved November 8, 2021 . ↑ "Habarovsk/Novy (Khabarovsk) Climate Normals 1961–1990" . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Retrieved November 2, 2021 . ↑ "climatebase.ru (1948-2011)" . Retrieved April 28, 2012 . ↑ "Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Russia" . Weatherbase. 2012. Retrieved on November 24, 2011. ↑ "Weather and Climate-The Climate of Okhotsk" (in Russian). Weather and Climate (Погода и климат). Archived from the original on December 3, 2019 . Retrieved December 3, 2019 . ↑ "Ohotsk (Okhotsk) Climate Normals 1961–1990" . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Retrieved December 3, 2019 . ↑ "1689, Nerchinsk – Russia" . China's External Relations . ↑ Alexei D. Voskressenski (2002). Russia and China: A Theory of Inter-State Relations . Routledge. pp.   107–108. ISBN   978-0700714957 . ↑ "1858, Aigun – Russia" . China's External Relations . ↑ Alexei D. Voskressenski (2002). Russia and China: A Theory of Inter-State Relations . Routledge. pp.   112–113. ISBN   978-0700714957 . ↑ Decree of October   20, 1938 ↑ Solnick, Steven (May 29, 1996). "Asymmetries in Russian Federation Bargaining" (PDF) . The National Council for Soviet and East European Research : 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. ↑ Chuman, Mizuki. "The Rise and Fall of Power-Sharing Treaties Between Center and Regions in Post-Soviet Russia" (PDF) . Demokratizatsiya : 146. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. ↑ "Anger at Kremlin Grows in Latest Massive Russian Far East Protest" . The Moscow Times . July 25, 2020. 1 2 "KNAAPO Komsomolsk na Amure Aviation Industrial Association named after Gagarin - Russian" . www.globalsecurity.org . ↑ Russian Federal State Statistics Service. Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года. Том 1 [ 2020 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1 ] (XLS) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service . ↑ Federal State Statistics Service (May 21, 2004). Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов   – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3   тысячи и более человек [ Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000 ] (XLS) . Всероссийская перепись населения 2002   года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002] (in Russian). ↑ Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989   г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров [ All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers ] . Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989   года [All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly . ↑ "Национальный состав населения" . Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved December 30, 2022 . ↑ "Information on the number of registered births, deaths, marriages and divorces for January to December 2022" . ROSSTAT . Archived from the original on March 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ↑ "Birth rate, mortality rate, natural increase, marriage rate, divorce rate for January to December 2022" . ROSSTAT . Archived from the original on March 2, 2023 . Retrieved February 21, 2023 . ↑ Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости [ Total fertility rate ] . Russian Federal State Statistics Service (in Russian). Archived from the original (XLSX) on August 10, 2023 . Retrieved August 10, 2023 . ↑ "Демографический ежегодник России" [ The Demographic Yearbook of Russia ] (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service of Russia (Rosstat) . Retrieved June 1, 2022 . 1 2 3 "Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia" . Sreda, 2012. ↑ 2012 Arena Atlas Religion Maps . "Ogonek", № 34 (5243), 27/08/2012. Retrieved 21/04/2017. Archived . ↑ The Institutions of Higher Education in Khabarovsk Krai Archived December 28, 2005, at the Wayback Machine ↑ "Independent Russian and Ukrainian Interpreters" . RusMoose.com . ↑ "Google Translate" . translate.google.co.uk . ↑ "Annual Congress in Sandviken, Sweden on Jan 30 2017 2017-01-28" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on December 4, 2017 . Retrieved February 23, 2017 . ↑ Gyeongsangnam-do official website English Archived September 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ↑ "Sister cities of the Hyogo Prefecture" . Archived from the original on October 29, 2007 . Retrieved January 10, 2009 . Хабаровская краевая Дума.   Постановление   №150   от   30 ноября 1995 г. «Устав Хабаровского края», в ред. Закона №152 от   23 декабря 2015 г.   «О внесении изменений в статьи   26 и   34 Устава Хабаровского края». Вступил в силу   16 января 1996 г. Опубликован: "Тихоокеанская звезда", №№7–8, 13 и 16 января 1996 г. (Khabarovsk Krai Duma.   Resolution   # 150   of   November   30, 1995 Charter of Khabarovsk Krai , as amended by the Law   # 152 of   December   23, 2015 On Amending Articles   26 and   34 of the Charter of Khabarovsk Krai . Effective as of   January   16, 1996.). Президиум Верховного Совета СССР.   Указ   от   20 октября 1938 г. «О разделении Дальневосточного края на Приморский и Хабаровский края». ( Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR .   Decree   of   October   20, 1938 On Splitting Far Eastern Krai into Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krais . ). Chaussonnet, Valerie (1995) Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia . Arctic Studies Center. Washington, D.C. 112p. ISBN   1-56098-661-1 (in Russian) — Official website of Khabarovsk Krai Information concerning the Shiwei tribes and their relationship with the Khitans (in Russian) — Brief history of Khabaovsk Krai (48) (24) (9) (4) (3) (1) Considered by most of the international community to be part of . Administratively subordinated to . Administratively subordinated to . (by ) (by ) (by ) : • Districts Cities and towns Topics Largest cities International National Geographic Academics 114 IMAGES Yacht rigging and masts of laid up vessels in an English harbor at Masts Tops and Rigging on Yachts Sailing Vessels in the Marina Stock Yacht masts and rigging set against a rain filled sky Stock Photo Yacht Rigging Sails and Mast Posts Stock Image Masts with rigging on a cruise yacht rushing up to the blue sky. Active Know-how: Modern Rigs 101 VIDEO 6. Masts & Rigging Surveys by Nick Parkyn Southern Spars Promotional Crash and Burn Rigging for Yachts workshop to launch -murray peterson steel sailing schooner"florijn" built by dick boele 1998 Lowering The Rig Mast COMMENTS Dwyer Mast & Rigging Quality Sailboat Masts, Booms, Hardware and Rigging Since 1963. Dwyer Mast & Rigging manufactures high-quality sailboat masts, booms, hardware, and rigging. 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Get the full sizing and inventory of: - the standing rigging - the running rigging - the mast section with weight and size - gravity center localization - and mast tuning report 4. Vanino, Khabarovsk Krai Vanin Bay on the Strait of Tartary was named after a topographer who worked in a team that prepared maps of the coast in 1874. Vanino was established in 1907. [1]The Vanino Harbor, then considered part of Sovetskaya Gavan, received an overland connection with the rest of the USSR with the construction of railway from Komsomolsk-on-Amur (the easternmost section of the future Baikal-Amur ... Khabarovsk Krai, Russia guide Khabarovsk Krai - Features. Khabarovsk Krai is one of the largest administrative-territorial units of the Russian Federation. The territory of the region stretches for about 1,800 kilometers from north to south, and for 125-750 km from west to east. The distance from Khabarovsk to Moscow is 8,533 km by rail, 8,385 by roads and 6,075 km by air. Khabarovsk Krai History. According to various Chinese and Korean records, the southern part of Khabarovsk Krai was originally occupied by one of the five semi-nomadic Shiwei, the Bo Shiwei tribes, and the Black Water Mohe tribes living, respectively, on the west and the east of the Bureya and the Lesser Khingan ranges.. In 1643, Vassili Poyarkov's boats descended the Amur, returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of ... Kondyor Massif Main page; Contents; Current events; Random article; About Wikipedia; Contact us; Donate; Pages for logged out editors learn more catamaran gulet motorboat powerboat riverboat sailboat trimaran yacht