rolex yacht master ii chronograph oystersteel and everose gold 2021

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Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold

Water-resistance

Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet

Everose gold bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated with raised numerals

Intense black

Oyster, three-piece solid links

Perpetual, mechanical, self-winding

3235, Manufacture Rolex

Bidirectional Rotatable Bezel

The Yacht-Master’s bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated bezel is made entirely from precious metals or fitted with a Cerachrom insert in high-tech ceramic. The raised polished numerals and graduations stand out clearly against a matt, sand-blasted background. This functional bezel – which allows the wearer to calculate, for example, the sailing time between two buoys – is also a key component in the model’s distinctive visual identity.

Intense black dial

Like all Rolex Professional watches, the Yacht-Master 40 offers exceptional legibility in all circumstances, and especially in the dark, thanks to its Chromalight display. The broad hands and hour markers in simple shapes – triangles, circles, rectangles – are filled with a luminescent material emitting a long-lasting glow.

Everose Rolesor

Gold is coveted for its lustre and nobility. Steel reinforces strength and reliability. Together, they harmoniously combine the best of their properties. A true Rolex signature, Rolesor has featured on Rolex models since the early 1930s, and was trademarked as a name in 1933. It is one of the prominent pillars of the Oyster collection.

Model availability

All Rolex watches are assembled by hand with the utmost care to ensure exceptional quality. Such high standards naturally restrict Rolex production capacity and, at times, the demand for Rolex watches outpaces this capacity.

Therefore, the availability of certain models may be limited. New Rolex watches are exclusively sold by Official Rolex Retailers, who receive regular deliveries and independently manage the allocation and sales of watches to customers. Precision Watches is proud to be part of the worldwide network of Official Rolex Retailers and can provide information on the availability of Rolex watches.

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Rolex Yacht-Master II Oystersteel & Everose Gold 44mm Men's Watch 116681-0001

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Rolex Yacht-Master 40 Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold M126621-0002

All Rolex watches are assembled by hand with the utmost care to ensure exceptional quality. Such high standards naturally restrict Rolex production capacity and, at times, the demand for Rolex watches outpaces this capacity.

Therefore, the availability of certain models may be limited. New Rolex watches are exclusively sold by Official Rolex Retailers, who receive regular deliveries and independently manage the allocation and sales of watches to customers.

[Official Rolex Retailer’s name] is proud to be part of the worldwide network of Official Rolex Retail-ers and can provide information on the availability of Rolex watches.

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• Rolex watches
• Yacht-Master
• M126621-0002

Yacht-Master 40

Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold

All prices are Rolex's suggested retail price before applicable taxes. Prices can be modified at any time without notice.

• Reference 126621
• Model case Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold
• Water-resistance Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet
• Bezel Everose gold bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated with raised numerals
• Dial Intense black
• Bracelet Oyster, three-piece solid links
• Movement Perpetual, mechanical, self-winding
• Caliber 3235, Manufacture Rolex
• Power reserve Approximately 70 hours
• Certification Superlative Chronometer (COSC + Rolex certification after casing)

Bidirectional Rotatable Bezel

The Yacht-Master’s bidirectional rotatable 60-minute graduated bezel is made entirely from precious metals or fitted with a Cerachrom insert in high-tech ceramic. The raised polished numerals and graduations stand out clearly against a matt, sand-blasted background. This functional bezel - which allows the wearer to calculate, for example, the sailing time between two buoys - is also a key component in the model’s distinctive visual identity.

Intense black dial

Like all Rolex Professional watches, the Yacht-Master 40 offers exceptional legibility in all circumstances, and especially in the dark, thanks to its Chromalight display. The broad hands and hour markers in simple shapes - triangles, circles, rectangles - are filled with a luminescent material emitting a long-lasting glow.

Everose Rolesor

Gold is coveted for its lustre and nobility. Steel reinforces strength and reliability. Together, they harmoniously combine the best of their properties. A true Rolex signature, Rolesor has featured on Rolex models since the early 1930s, and was trademarked as a name in 1933. It is one of the prominent pillars of the Oyster collection.

Model availability

Marine character

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2021 Rolex Yacht-Master II Oystersteel Everose Gold 44mm Men's Watch 116681 BNP

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About the Item

• Creator : Rolex
• Design : Yacht Master Watch
• Case Material : 18k Gold , Rose Gold , Stainless Steel
• Strap Material : Stainless Steel , Rose Gold
• Case Shape : Round
• Movement : Automatic
• Style : Contemporary
• Place of Origin : Switzerland
• Period : 2010-
• Date of Manufacture : 2021
• Condition : Good. In original box. Wear consistent with age and use. The watch is in excellent condition with very few signs of wear such as hairline scratches and dings which are common with preowned watches. This watch has been certified by our master watchmaker and comes with our 2 year mechanical warranty.
• Seller Location : Tustin, CA
• Reference Number : Seller: IL1LMZUQ0028XX 1stDibs: LU810323427352

While the rise in popularity of vintage Rolex watches is of no surprise to aficionados, collectors and industry experts , when it comes to contemporary luxury wristwatches, Rolex is also often the first brand that springs to mind. Not only is the company revered for its precision timekeeping and impeccable craftsmanship, but its name was designed to be memorable.

Rolex's enviable worldwide recognition can be credited in part to the genius of company founder Hans Wilsdorf. When the German-born watch dealer and his brother-in-law, Alfred Davis, set up their London enterprise, in 1905, they called it Wilsdorf & Davis, according to the traditional formula.

But Wilsdorf was determined to come up with another name that was short, would look good on a watch dial and was easy to say and remember in several languages. In 1908, he trademarked the name Rolex, and by 1920, he had moved the company to Geneva and redubbed it as Montres Rolex S.A.

But the main reasons for the brand’s success are its aforementioned commitment to precision and unflagging pursuit of innovation. In 1926, the company introduced the aptly named Oyster model. With a screw-down crown and case back, both fitted with rubber gaskets, this was the first truly waterproof watch.

Five years later, Rolex upped the ante with the Oyster Perpetual . That model’s patented Perpetual movement contained a rotor mechanism enabling it to self-wind. In another trendsetting move, in 1945, the brand debuted the Datejust , with a date window prominently displayed on the dial.

The company’s two most iconic models are sports watches. Although the Submariner , which debuted in 1953, was developed as a dive watch, its waterproof case, solid construction and good looks made it a favorite of adventurers and urbanites alike, including James Bond , who wore it in classics like Dr. No and Goldfinger . The Daytona , the racing chronograph made famous by Paul Newman , is especially sought after by collectors. Newman’s personal Daytona, which hit the auction block in 2017, sold for $17.8 million.

Find vintage Rolex watches, bracelets and more on 1stDibs.

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Rolex Yacht-Master II Chronograph OysterSteel And Everose Gold 2021

In ** Diamond & Jewellery Sale Event ** 7.00 Cara...

H&F International Limited

• Make: Rolex 
• Model: Yacht Master II 
• Case: OysterSteel And Everose Gold 
• Dial: White 
• Model: 116681
• OysterSteel And Everose Gold Bracelet 
• Year: 2021 
• Box & Card: Present 
• Warrenty Card: Present 
• Condition: Slight Signs Of Wear 
• Vat Status: Plus Vat  

** Beat The Waiting List - Great Investment Time Piece ** 

RING COMMAND BEZEL

A SYNCHRONIZED COUNTDOWN

Rolex achieved perfection when it turned its attention to redefining the purpose and functionality of the bezel. Typically, a bezel operates independently from the internal mechanism; however, the Ring Command bezel in the Yacht-Master II regatta chronograph operates in conjunction with it. As a mechanical component linked to the movement, the bezel literally acts as the key to the programmable countdown, allowing it to be set and synchronised to the sequence of race start times. Complex in design, but simple in use, it is functionally beautiful.

A CHARACTERISTIC AESTHETIC

The Yacht-Master II is equipped with a new dial, and new hands that are characteristic of Rolex Professional models, enhancing legibility and sharpening its aesthetic appeal. The dial now features a triangular hour marker at 12 o’clock and a rectangular hour marker at 6 o’clock for more intuitive reading of the watch. A luminescent disc on the hour hand clearly distinguishes it from the minute hand. The Yacht-Master II’s countdown can be programmed for a duration of between 1 and 10 minutes. The programming is memorized by the mechanism so that at a reset it returns to the previous setting. Once launched, the countdown can be synchronized on the fly to match the official race countdown.

EVEROSE ROLESOR

A MEETING OF TWO METALS

Gold is coveted for its lustre and nobility. Steel reinforces strength and reliability. Together, they harmoniously combine the best of their properties. A true Rolex signature, Rolesor has featured on Rolex models since the early 1930s, and was trademarked as a name in 1933. It is one of the prominent pillars of the Oyster collection.

THE OYSTER BRACELET

ALCHEMY OF FORM AND FUNCTIONT

the Oyster bracelet is a perfect alchemy of form and function, aesthetics and technology, designed to be both robust and comfortable. It is equipped with an Oysterlock folding clasp, which prevents accidental opening and the Easylink comfort extension link, also exclusive to Rolex. This ingenious system allows the wearer to increase the bracelet length by approximately 5 mm, providing additional comfort in any circumstance.

4161 MOVEMENT

SUPERLATIVE PERFORMANCE

The Yacht-Master II is equipped with calibre 4161, a self-winding mechanical chronograph movement entirely developed and manufactured by Rolex. Its architecture, manufacturing quality and innovative features make it singularly precise and reliable. This abundance of Rolex technology, the result of over 35,000 hours of development, includes a patented function and comprises some 360 components. Some of them are made by UV-LiGA, a micromanufacturing technology entirely mastered in-house by Rolex. This technology allows the production of components whose tiny proportions or complex geometry rule out manufacturing by traditional machining methods.

Collection / Payment Details:

Collection Details : Sales Address

Delivery Available ( Call Accounts For A Quote )

(Please Arrange A Collection Date & Time Prior To Arrival) 

Payment Deadline : By The Next Day 10:00 Am

Payment Method : Strictly Bac's Transfer Only 

Auctioneer Notes:

All bids submitted are valid and taken as provisional if The reserve has not been met It Can be Lowered By the Auctioneer At Any Time.

For Buyer Premium / VAT Charges, Please Refer To 'Additional Fees Tab’

Late Payment Will Result In Receiving Late Payment Charges, Charged At A Daily Rate Of  5% +VAT Of The Total Payable Invoice Including Buyers premium And A One Off Administration Charge of £250 + Vat Also A Storage Fee of £100 + vat per day ( these additional penalty Charges can not be removed once applied ) 

Lot Location Status: On Site

** Diamond & Jewellery Sale Event ** 7.00 Carat Emerald Cut Diamond E VVS2 - 22 Carat Round Brilliant Diamond Tennis Bracelet D-E - VVS **

Venue address.

For H&F International Limited delivery information please telephone 01638 453300 .

Important Information

H&F International limited

( Jewellery Auction Information ) 

All Sales Start At 11:00Am Every Tuesday And Run For 7 Days Until 11:00am on the seventh Day All Lots That Have Met Reserve Will end And be invoiced accordingly And All Additional Lot’s will be put in extension until 15:00 that Afternoon all lots that have reached reserve will End and be invoiced accordingly. 

Please note if the reserve is met on a lot the auctioneer reserves the Right to Reduce the end time to 10 minutes and invoice you Accordingly once the lot has ended. 

( Bid's ) 

Please note that all bids submitted are Valid even if the reserve is not met They are treated as provisional bids And Are still binding. Also if you have been outbid on a lot the auctioneer reserves the right to accept your bid as the underbidder within a 24hr period And you will be invoiced accordingly. please Be Aware of this prior to Bidding.

( Grading System )

Please note we have a grading system in place for Assessment Only. Grade details can be found in terms and conditions and explained in depth. The Lot's Grade will be located on Each Lot Description. These Are For Guidance Purposes Only And we Strongly Suggest that if you have Any doubts Please arrange a Viewing Appointment Before Bidding.

Some Diamond Lot’s Have a Electronic Copy of there grading certificate however some of the information is not provided which is on the original Certificate please use the certificate number which is located on each lot under the description on the grading labs direct website for further information.

( Auctioneer Notes ) 

If The Auctioneer Feels that there is a minor or major issue with a lot or wants to add more clarity to a lots Description this will be located under the auctioneer notes which is located on every lot description.  

( Additional Fees / Buyer's Premium)

Buyer’s Premium For All Lots is 20% + Vat (24% ) 

( Viewing's )

Viewing's are available up to 48 hours prior to auction ending by strict appointment only please call to arrange a viewing before traveling.  

Enquires / Viewing's Number: 01638 453300 ( Option 1 ) 

( Delivery Nationwide ) 

Please Call Accounts For A Quote  ( Excluding Northern Ireland & Scotland ) 

( Collection's ) 

Once your invoice has been paid you have a 5 day grace period to collect your Winning Lot please arrange this at your earliest convenience . please also note collection's are by strict appointment only If You Come To collect without a appointment you will be turned Away. after 5 days if your Lot has not been Arranged for collection then a One off Administration charge of £250 + Vat will be charged and a £100 + Vat Per day charge will incur until the vehicle is collected. These additional charges must be paid in full before the vehicle / Item will be released.

Collection's Number: 01638 453300 ( Option 3 )

( Payment ) 

( United Kingdom ) 

Payment is Due no later then 10:00Am the following day ( including weekends ) after your invoice has been sent please note that if your payment is not received  within the payment deadline then a late payment charges will incur as follows a one off administration fee of  £250 + Vat and a 5% Plus Vat  Charge per day will be added on the total invoice amount payable also a storage fee will apply also charged at £50 + vat per day until full payment is made 

( USA & Europe ) 

All payments made from bidders outside of the united kingdom are allowed Three working days for payment to be proceed as it will be a international payment however proof of payment must be provided before 10:00am the following day if not late payment charges will be applied. 

( Payment Details ) 

Name of account holder: ( H&F International Limited )

Name of bank:( HSBC )

Account number: 61873024 

Sort code: 40-16-10

IBAN: GB92HBUK40161061873024

Swift code: HBUKGB4124D

( Please Note we Are Strictly Bac's Transfer Only ) 

( Please also note payment details will be on your invoice ) 

( Contact information )

( Enquires ) 

01638 453300 ( Option 1 )

[email protected]

( Accounts )

 01638 453300 ( Option 2 ) 

[email protected] 

( Collection's )

 01638 453300 ( Option 3 ) 

( Auctioneer's ) 

01638 453300 ( Option 4 ) 

[email protected]

[email protected]

Terms and Conditions

Terms and conditions of H&F International Limited (company number 12831626 )

• Our auction services

We provide online auction facility services through which you can bid for vehicles provided by third parties (the vehicles being auctioned are not ours).  All auctions are to take place online.

We are acting as an auctioneer, and as such we are acting as the agent of the seller of the vehicles auctioned. We are not responsible for any default by the seller.  

It is important that you read and understand these terms before using our services. By accessing or using our services, you agree to be legally bound by these terms, as they may be modified from time to time.

We reserve the right to change these terms at any time. Amendments will take effect when posted on our website. By continuing to us our services, you agree to be bound by any amended terms.

• Registration and qualification to use the Services
• We only provide our services to businesses and not to consumers. Accordingly, by registering with us and by continuing to use our services you confirm that you are doing so in a business capacity only.
• Before making a bid, you will need to register with us by completing the registration form on our home page and submitting it to us. By registering you are making a statement, upon which we are entitled to rely, that you are aged 18 years or older and capable of forming a legally binding contract on behalf of your business. When registering with us on behalf of your business, you warrant to us that you have authority to enter into these terms and any contracts entered into as a result of these terms on behalf of that business and that by registering with us, that business can enter into and be bound by these terms and any contracts entered into as a result of these terms.    
• You are responsible for ensuring that any registration details you provide us are kept up to date, and you confirm that you will advise us of any changes in your registration details as soon as possible.
• On occasions certain businesses will be refused access to our services, or their registrations may be rejected. Such suspensions and rejections shall be within our sole discretion.
• Every bidder shall be deemed to act as principal unless there is in force a written acknowledgment by us that the bidder acts as agent on behalf of a named principal.
• Information you provide

You grant us a non-exclusive, worldwide, perpetual, irrevocable, royalty-free license to use any information you provide to us or other users of our services, for example during the registration, or bidding process, and for legitimate business purposes e.g. running credit check on you or your business. Such information shall be accurate and complete, shall not infringe any third party’s rights, shall not contain any viruses or other malicious computer programming routines and shall not link to any other websites. You also warrant that you have permission to provide the information you provide us. 

You are solely responsible in all respects for all use of and for protecting the confidentiality of any email verification number and password which may be given to or selected by you for use on our site. You may not share these with or transfer them to any third parties. 

• Availability of site

We cannot guarantee that our website will operate continuously or without faults or interruptions or that it will be error free (and we do not warrant the contend of our website, including but not limited to third party content), and we exclude all liability in that regard to the fullest extent permissible by law. This could affect bidding or other aspects of an auction or sale.

• General rules governing bidding and buying
• All bids must be provided to us through the iBidder platform. Please do not contact us directly with any bids as these will not be accepted. A bid will be placed when received by us from iBidder. We will assume that all bids received by us are genuine. Once made, you may not retract a bid without our consent.
• Other than set out in these terms, we do not accept any liability of any nature as a result of any failure by iBidder to provide us with accurate information regarding you or your bid, or for failure by iBidder to communicate with you regarding your bid and the status of your bid, or for any failure by iBidder to provide us with information relating to you or a bid made by you, or for any information on the iBidder website (including but not limited to information regarding a vehicle we are auctioning being inaccurate) or for any faults or lack of availability of the iBidder website or for the contents of the iBidder website generally.   
• We reserve the right, at our sole discretion, to refuse any bid placed by you. We will receive your bid from iBidder, but will contact you directly if your bid is refused. We will also let iBidder know that your bid has been refused by us.
• Each auction will have a start and an end time (bids will not be accepted after the end time). The end time of an auction may only be brought forward in the following circumstances (i) in our absolute discretion (ii) a “Buy it now” price is met in accordance with clause 7.
• If you are the highest bidder after an auction has ended, you must complete the transaction. Any dispute as to any bid shall be settled at our absolute discretion (and we are not obliged to give any reasons for our decision).
• A vehicle being auctioned may have a reserve price (as shown on the auction page for the vehicle on iBidder). In most circumstances we will not advertise what the reserve price is.  If the reserve price is not met, then the seller will not be obliged to sell the vehicle If you are the highest bidder when the auction ends and your bid equals or exceeds the reserve price, then clause 6.5 of these terms shall apply. 
• You're placing of a bid entitles us to rely on your bid and as a result you warrant and undertake that you have the legal right to make such a bid and to enter into any such transaction. By placing a bid, you understand that you are potentially entering into a legally binding transaction for the purchase of a vehicle, and so please do not place a bid unless you consider that you will be able to properly fulfil the terms of any such transaction. 
• If someone places a bid using your account details, we will assume that the bid came from  your account, so please keep your account details safe. 
• If you bid for a vehicle, you acknowledge and agree that if you have placed the highest bid (and such bid equal or exceeds a reserve price (if applicable) or you bid a “Buy it now” price (if applicable)), at the point at which the auction ends (or at the point at which your “Buy it now” bid is accepted),a contract of sale will be formed by you and the seller to buy the vehicle.
• Any contract to buy a vehicle will be made directly between the you and the seller. We will not be a party to or have any liability of whatever nature under that contract. The sale contract between you and the seller will include the relevant parts of these terms including but not limited to clauses 9.2 and 11. Section 12 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 shall be incorporated into the contract between you and the seller.
• Please note that copies of the Auctions (Bidding Agreements) Acts 1927 and 1969 are held at our place of business.
• We reserve the right, at our sole discretion, to suspend, cancel or extend an auction at any time.
• After you have made a bid, we reserve the right to request a deposit of £300 from you (to be paid in accordance with clause 10.3). If your bid is successful, then this deposit will be set against any amount you owe for the vehicle. If your bid is not successful, then unless you notify us otherwise by email, we will return your deposit to you in full within 48 hours of the end of the auction  
• iBidder will keep you updated as to the status of your bid, including letting you know if someone has put in a bid which is higher than a bid made by you.  If you have been successful in your bid, you will be notified of this by iBidder. We will also contact you if your bid is successful to provide you with our invoice and information about when to collect the vehicle, as set out in further detail in these terms. 
• The title to the vehicle purchased shall not pass to you until you have made payment in accordance with clause 10 and collected the vehicle in accordance with clause 11. Until title passes, the vehicle shall remain the property of the seller.

If a vehicle is marked “Buy it now” and you bid the “But it now” price shown within the timescales shown on the auction page for the vehicle on iBidder, then unless someone else has bid the “Buy it now” price before you, your bid will be the winning bid and clause 6 of these terms shall apply.If you purchase a vehicle by “Buy it now”, it may not be deemed to be a sale at auction. However, the rest of these terms shall apply, in particular that any contract for the sale of the vehicle shall be made between you and the seller, and that we shall not be a party to, or have any liability of whatever nature for such contract (even though we will have helped to facilitate the contract between you and the seller, and may assist with matters such as payment).

• Timing of the auction and inspection
• Unless it is stated otherwise in relation to the auction of a particular item, an auction will usually run from a Sunday to a Friday.
• You can physically inspect a vehicle that is up for auction after contacting us to make an appointment. Such an inspection shall be limited in its scope and the parameters of the inspection shall be entirely at our discretion. Other than with our consent, such inspection may not take place within 48 hours of the time that an auction is to end.
• Status of vehicle
• Any reference to the age of a vehicle in the particulars relating to it is intended to be a reference to the year of first registration of the vehicle in the United Kingdom or, if the vehicle was registered in a jurisdiction outside the United Kingdom more than 5 years before it was first registered in the United Kingdom, to the date of its first registration outside the United Kingdom.
• All vehicles are sold where it is and in its actual state and condition at the point that it is sold in accordance with these terms (being the point that a contract is entered into in accordance with clause 6.9) All vehicles are sold with all faults and imperfections and errors of description. Illustrations on our website and the iBidder website are for identification only. We do not guarantee that any photographs or illustrations of a vehicle are accurate. We do not guarantee that any illustrations of the vehicle on our website or the iBidder website will be of the entire vehicle. You should satisfy yourself prior to sale as to the condition of each vehicle and should exercise and rely on your own judgment as to whether the vehicle accords with its description. Neither we, nor the seller, or our or their servants or agents are responsible for errors of description or for the genuineness or authenticity of any vehicle; no warranty is given by us or our servants or agents or by any seller or their servants or agents to you in respect of any vehicle (including but not limited to its state and condition other than as set out above), and any express or implied conditions or warranties (whether statutory or otherwise) relating to the matters set out in this clause 9.2 are excluded.
• If there are any issues which we are aware about in relation to a vehicle e.g. a mechanical fault, we may mention this next the listing of a vehicle for auction, but we do not guarantee that we will refer to all or any issues relating to a vehicle and give no warranty in relation to the accuracy of any comments made (and no reliance should be placed on them). We recommend that you inspect the vehicle yourself before making a bid.
• We may indicate next to the listing of a vehicle for auction the mileage and/or operating hours in relation to that vehicle. However, we do not warrant the accuracy of any such information and we recommend that you inspect the vehicle yourself before making a bid.
• We will indicate next to the listing of a vehicle for auction one of the following grades (please note that we accept no responsibility for the accuracy of any such descriptions in relation to a particular vehicle, and we recommend that you inspect the vehicle yourself before making a bid):
• Grades.  On every lot there will be a grade rating ie ( Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 3, ) these are  H&F Internationals limited assessment of a vehicle to make bidding / Buy it now easier for the bidder / purchaser to take into account any mechanical faults or faults known or suspected by H&F International. 
• Grade 1: 
• Vehicle has been assessed to have no dashboard warning lights illuminated, or any known faults from conducting a test drive on our main facility’s service road up to but not exceeding 15mph, there are no leaks coming from the engine bay or under carriage, vehicle has no dashboard service lights illuminated. Vehicles gearbox selects all gears. Clutch is functioning, vehicle runs and drives. This Grade will also state on lot description vehicle status: Runner.
• Grade 2: 
• ( All Vehicle Lots That Exceed 100,000 miles or over Three years Of Age Will Be Assessed As Grade 2 Due To the Mileage And Age Of The Vehicle Lot And May Not Have A Fault Present At the Time Of Assessment Conducted By H&F International Limited But Could Develop In Time Due to the age and mileage of the Vehicle Lot )  Vehicle Lot has been assessed to have dashboard warning lights illuminated / missing dashboard warning lights. vehicle test drive has been conducted on our main facility’s service road  up to but not exceeding 15 mph. minor / major faults have been assessed from the engine bay, Gearbox, clutch, And to have minor / major Oil leaks, coolant Leakes, electronically faults or component faults mechanised or other .Vehicle runs and drives. This grade will also state on lot description vehicle status: Runner 
• Grade 3: 
• Vehicle has been assessed as having major mechanical issues from the engine bay, clutch, gearbox, all components that makes the vehicle run and drive.Under this grade the bidder / purchaser will be advised to transport the vehicle away either by trailer or recovery company. This grade will also state on description vehicle status: Non-Runner if the vehicle starts and runs ( Example Vehicle lot Engine Starts & Runs with with the fault present we will put the vehicle status as Runner this does not mean that the vehicle will be able to be driven away as the engine will start but a major fault prevents its from driving. If the Vehicle is a Import that is not registered then grade 3 will mean Not the above but could have minor/Major Faults with the Engine, gearbox or 4wd system as these vehicles are not road legal due to none registration they will be advised to be transported away by recover or trailered 

( Imported Vehicle Lot’s )

There will be one grade for imported lot’s.

The imported lot has been assessed to have faults existing or suspected from the engine bay, gearbox, drive train, braking system, electrical System, as these Vehicle import’s are not registered in the united kingdom and previously registered in the united states or Canada they are not deemed roadworthy regardless of cosmetic condition or mechanical condition as they are not registered vehicles within the united kingdom. We Strongly suggest that every bidder take the time to book a viewing appointment prior to bidding to make there own opinions prior to placing a bid on these lot’s and if not will be doing so at there own risk and understand and accept that the guidance H&F international limited has instructed you prior to registering and you have accepted the terms and conditions ( the contract ) prior to bidding and have disregarded this guidance at your own risk.

• Mileage / Kilometres: ( Verified - if a lot states verified mileage or kms then we deem there has been no mileage discrepancy's or mileage odometer tampering with the mileage displayed and deem it to be a true reading of mileage / kms at the time of sale 
• ( un-verified ) if a lot states un-verified mileage or kms then we deem there is a mileage discrepancy or the mileage odometer has been changed or tampered with and mileage or kms are deemed totally incorrect and true mileage is unknown at the time of sale
• ( un-verified due to being a import ) mileage or kms are deemed incorrect as there is a significant mileage / kms discrepancy due to mileage odometer being changed or tampered with and the mileage / kms and deemed totally incorrect from the mileage / kms that are displayed at the time of sale and the true mileage is unknown 
• ( HPI Reports U.K Vehicle Lots  ) for vehicle lots we check on the HPI System for any history of accident damage repair's if the vehicle has no history of damage or accidents then we will not place any remarks on the lot description and this should be looked upon as HPI Clear. 
• If a vehicle lot has a history of accident damage / Repairs then this will be located under auctioneer remarks under the category of the damage ie ( cat b, cat c, cat d, cat n, cat s ) and will be located under auctioneer remarks on each lot 
• ( Carfax Reports U.S / Canadian Import Vehicle Lot's ) for a imported vehicle lot we take due diligence in finding out as much of the lot's history as possible but due to the vehicle lot being a import we can not warrant the carfax reports due to the lots coming from outside the united kingdom and not being registered vehicles. we do supply carfax reports with all additional documents provided to us by our U.S / Canadian vendors but these reports are to be taken as guidance only as milage Discrepancy’s and history reports vary from the united states and Canada ie ( a carfax report in Canada states there is no accident damage but a u.s.a report will state there has been accident damage ) or ( the u.s.a report states the mileage as miles but the Canadian carfax states kilometres on the mileage record or service record ) due to this all imported vehicle lots have to be deemed as having previous accident damage recorded present on the carfax report or not and all mileage is deemed incorrect as stated in ( mileage / kilometres section 1, 2, and 3 ) unless otherwise stated on the lot description or auctioneer remarks located at the bottom of all lot descriptions 

Jewelry, Diamonds & Watch’s Descriptions & Grades:  

Jewelry Lot Description & Grades 

Each jewellery lot has been described by the vendor and checked with an offsite expert jeweller to confirm the jewellery lot is indeed what the vendor has described it to be ie ( Gold, Silver, Platinum, White Gold And so on ) And Also That the Diamonds in such a lot if any Are also natural Diamonds unless stated otherwise. Every lot of this nature is checked with no exceptions. Any damage to a jewellery lot if any will be stated under auctioneer remarks if any ie ( Clasp Broken, Cracks, lose or lost diamonds And so on ) 

There will be three grades for jewellery lots 

( in New Condition )

( Used Condition ) 

( Broken condition 

( Diamond Lot’s )

Every Diamond Lot has been described by the vendor and checked by an onsite and off site diamond expert with GIA Graduate Degree to Maintain the highest accurate information on every diamond. All diamonds are loose and come in a protective case or Diamond paper with a Certified diamond certificate from Either GIA, EGL, IGI, HRD, AGI  And any other major or minor gemologist institute’s. We do not Auction conflict diamonds. 

There will be Two diamond grades for diamond Lot’s 

 Natural Diamond lot’s 

( Clarity Scale VS2, VS1, VVS2, VVS1, IF, FL ) ( Color Scale ) (Faint M, L, K, ) ( Near Colourless J, I, H, G ) ( Colourless F, E, D, ) These are natural Diamonds Lot’s But can also be Clarity enhanced Diamonds And also HPHT Diamonds these will come under the same category as natural as long as they are natural diamonds to begin with. As stated above You Can Check The Certificate of The diamond With the Cert Number provided which is located on every Diamond lot Description so you can conduct your own investigation prior to bidding 

( Clarity Scale SI1, SI2, I1, I2, I3 ) ( colour Scale ) ( Very Light N, O, P, Q, R ) ( Light S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z ) These are natural Diamonds Lot’s But can also be Clarity enhanced Diamonds And also HPHT Diamonds these will come under the same category as natural as long as they are natural diamonds to begin with.As stated above You Can Check The Certificate of The diamond With the Cert Number provided which is located on every Diamond lot Description so you can conduct your own investigation prior to bidding.

Please also note that we place electronic copies of the certificates on each lots photos  and also the certificate numbers on the headline of each lot as well as the lot description  Electronic Copies may not display all of the physical details held on the original certificate and it is strongly advised you search the diamond certificate number with the grading labs name so you conduct your own investigation prior to bidding and have all the information needed prior to bidding. This information is supplied and not withheld so you can do this if needed without waiting for the information from the auctioneers. 

( Lab Grown Diamonds ) 

These will coincide with the clarity and colour scale of natural diamonds mentioned above however under the Diamond Type Tab located on the lot description this will state ( Lab Grown ) please note that these are CVD,HTHP and are both lab grown diamonds even if the diamond is a CVD and has been treated by HPHT then this is still classed as a Lab Grown diamond. Please also note a Electronic Certificate will be available to view on the lot photos however there will also be the certificates number located on the lots headline and also the lot descriptions. Electronic copies sometimes do not provide all the details that are found on the Original Certificate it is strongly advised that you use the certificate number and search the grading labs own website for the full information prior to bidding. 

Please also note that we place electronic copies of the certificates on each lots photos  and also the certificate numbers on the headline of each lot as well as the lot description  Electronic Copies may not display all of the physical details held on the original certificate and it is strongly advised you search the diamond certificate number with the grading labs name so you conduct your own investigation prior to bidding and have all the information needed prior to bidding. This information is supplied and not withheld so you can do this if needed without waiting for the information from the auctioneers.

( Watch’s) 

Every Watch Lot has been described by the vendor and checked by an onsite jewellery Expert with knowledge of ( Rolex, Omega, Patek Philippe, Tutor, Bvlgaria, Cartier ) and also an offsite expert Jewelry also. All watches come with original boxes and paperwork unless otherwise stated under auctioneer notes. 

There will be three grades for watch lot’s ( 1A, 2B, 3C ) 

( In New Condition )

Lot Is In New Condition

( in used condition ) 

showing slightly used wear, no loose or lost diamonds if any, in usable condition with no repairs needed ) 

Auctioneer Notes: Auctioneer notes can be located at the bottom of every item description. These notes are from the auctioneer addressing any major or minor facts about a lot / vehicle that he / she thinks the bidder’s should know about before placing a bid or choosing to select the buy it now option. 

Lot Collection Details ( Live Auction Lot’s ) 

( On Site ) 

Under Auctioneer notes it will state “On Site” if a lot is physically on site at the collection facility. This means your lot can be booked in for collection as soon as your invoice’s are paid ( Hammer Price Invoice 1/2 ) and ( Buyers Premium Invoice 2/2 ) 

( In Transit ) - ( Collection from Vendors Address ) 

If a lot states that it is “In transit to our main collection facility” or “At a Vendors Location”,  this will state under auctioneer notes ( In transit ) or ( At Vendors Location ). If this is the case then the guidance for these lots is that they may take up to but not exceeding 30 working days (Not including weekends) to be available for collection. In some cases it will read under auctioneer notes "A collection date can be arranged passed a certain date but it cannot be arranged before this certain date”.

( Imported lots )

As we have locations in the USA and Canada, we do have vendors put forward lots to be sold through the U.K auction, that they want to be sold in the United Kingdom. Once a lot is sold of this nature, the vendor will ship the lot to the United Kingdom. These lots will state under auctioneer notes “In Transit”. These vehicles can take up to but not exceeding 90 working days to be arranged for collection. In some cases a date will be provided to book a collection after a certain date. 

Example Photos

Some Times A vendor will not be able to provide photos for a lot and we will issue the listing with example photos these lots will state under auctioneer notes example photos In some cases photos will be updated before a lot ends but only if the lot is received on site in the time frame to do so. 

Please note that we do not warrant any example photos to be the true likeness of the lot in question and we are strictly using these for example purposes only. These can also be recognised by the number plate on a vehicle lot being blank With no numbers or letters showing.

• Payment and fees
• If you have been successful in purchasing a vehicle in an auction, we will provide you with an invoice for the vehicle by email within 2 hours of the end of the auction (or of you being successful in bidding a “Buy it now” price). 
• Unless otherwise stated, all invoices must be paid in full in cleared funds by 10:00Am the next day ( including weekends ) of the invoice being emailed to you, or before you collect the vehicle / arrange for delivery, whichever is the earlier.
• Invoices referred to in clause 10.1 are to be paid by BACS (no other form of payment will be accepted) to the account detailed below:
• We will charge a commission equal to 11% of the purchase price, and this will be set out in the invoice referred to in clause 10.1.
• VAT will be charged on the purchase price for vehicles / lots that state ( Vat Status + VAT @ 20% ) and this will be set out in the invoice referred to in clause 10.1. Also + Vat.  lots will also carry a 4% internet surcharge 
• None Vat  lots will carry a 11% commission charge along with a 4% Internet surcharge ( Plus Vat )
• Jewellery and diamond lots are charged at 20% Plus Vat  buyers premium  
• To view these charges on the bidding platform ( I-Bidder / Bidspotter ) please view the additional charges tab.
• If your bid is successful and you subsequently wish to cancel the contract, then subject to our written agreement and written agreement from the seller, cancellation can take place. However, even if a contract is cancelled, we shall be entitled to charge our commission in accordance with clause 10.4 of these terms. In addition in order to allow the seller to re-auction the vehicle at no cost to the seller
• If your bid is successful and you fail to collect the vehicle or arrange for delivery in accordance with clause 11.1 of these terms,  we will charge you a storage fee of [£50+ Vat] per day And a one off administration fee of £250 + Vat We will invoice you for storage fees. Payment is to be made in accordance with clauses 10.2 and 10.3 of these terms.
• If you fail to make a payment due to us in accordance with these terms, by the due date, then, you shall pay interest on the overdue sum from the due date until payment of the overdue sum, whether before or after judgment. Interest under this clause will accrue each day at the rates set out in and in accordance with the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998 (as amended). Percentage set at ( 5% per day plus vat this will not Exceed 14 Days ) please also note that there will be a £250 plus Vat one off Administration charge at the beginning of late payment fees Or Storage Charges.
• Collection and delivery
• You shall, at your own expense take away the vehicle purchased (either personally or via a delivery company) not later than 5 working days (a working day being a day other than a Saturday, Sunday or public holiday in England when banks in London are open for business) after the end of the auction but not before payment to us in full of the purchase price and any other monies owed to us in relation to these terms in relation to the vehicle (including but not limited to our commission as referred to in clause 10.4). You shall be responsible for any removal, storage and insurance charges on any vehicle not taken away within the time limits specified in this clause 11.1. Time for collection is of the essence.
• You will be responsible for loss or damage (i.e. risk) to the vehicle purchased from the time that the auction ends (or when a bid for a “Buy it now” price has been accepted), and neither we nor our servants or agents shall afterwards be responsible for any loss or damage of any kind, whether caused by negligence or otherwise, while any vehicle is in our custody or under our control. Accordingly, we recommend that you arrange for appropriate insurance for the vehicle.
• [We can arrange for any vehicle purchased to be delivered to you. Please contact us directly to arrange delivery. We will charge you for delivery (and invoice you in accordance with clause 10 of these terms), such charge to be agreed when you contact us to arrange delivery (the charge will vary depending on how far the delivery address is from where the vehicle is situated] OR [If you would like any vehicle to be delivered to you, please contact us and we can put you in touch with a delivery company. Any contract for the delivery of the vehicle will be between you and the delivery company, neither we nor the seller will be a party to it nor have any liability of any nature in relation to it. Further, neither we, nor the seller, nor our or their servants or agents will be responsible for any damage caused to the vehicle either directly or indirectly by the delivery company or its servants or agents at any time.
• You shall be responsible for complying with all legal requirements as to the construction and use of any vehicle purchased and for obtaining all certificates, permits or other authorisations necessary before that vehicle can be used on any road.
• You can only collect your vehicle after having made an appointment with us. You will need to bring a proof of payment with you, and also be wearing a high-vis jacket.  While one site, you agree to comply with any relevant health and safety procedures and any reasonable directions given by us or our agents or servants.
• You agree that if a vehicle is unroadworthy or does not have proper documentation to legally allow it to be driven, you will not take it away from the collection point until these matters have been properly dealt with by you.
• If any vehicle is not paid for in full and taken away in accordance with these terms, or if there is any other breach of these terms (in relation to payment of an outstanding sum or otherwise), we, as the agents of the seller (or on our own behalf, as applicable)  shall at our absolute discretion and without prejudice to any other rights we may have, be entitled to exercise one or more of the following rights or remedies, that is to say:

(i) to proceed against you for damages for breach of contract, which may include commencing legal proceedings against you for the recovery of monies owed (you may also be liable for our legal fees for pursuing the monies);

(ii)   to proceed against you for the debt due under the contract, which may include commencing legal proceedings against you for the recovery of monies owed (you may also be liable for our legal fees for pursuing the monies);

(iii) to rescind the sale of that or any other vehicle sold to you at the same or any other auction;

(iv) to resell the vehicle or cause it to be resold by public auction or private sale. You shall then pay us any resulting deficiency in the purchase price at the first auction (together with our commission (as set out in clause 10.4) and any other sums due under these terms) after deduction of any part payment and addition of resale costs. Any surplus shall belong to the seller, unless title to the vehicle has passed to you in accordance with clause 6.15 of these terms, in which case the surplus shall belong to and shall be paid to you;

(v) to remove, store (either at our premises or elsewhere) and insure the vehicle at your expense;

(vi) to charge interest in accordance with clause 10.8;

(vii) to retain that or any other vehicle sold to you at the same or any other auction and release it only after payment of the purchase price and our commission (as set out in clause 10.4) and any other sums due to us under these terms;

(viii) to proceed against you for damages for breach of these terms or to proceed against you for a debt due under these terms (to include but not limited to proceeding against you for non-payment of our commission as referred to in clause 10.4) which may include commencing legal proceedings against you for the recovery of monies owed (you may also be liable for our legal fees for pursuing the monies.

(ix) to reject or ignore any bids made by you at any future auction; or

(x) to apply any proceeds of sale then due or at any time afterwards becoming due to you towards settlement of the purchase price (and our commission (as set out in clause 10.4) and any other sums due to us under these terms) and to exercise a lien on any of your property which is in our possession for any purpose.

• Personal registration plates

Some vehicles for auction will have a personal registration plate. If the personal registration plate is not to be included in the sale, this will be made clear on the auction page of the vehicle and we will also include on the auction page for the vehicle any extra charge to be incurred by us for removing the personal number plate

• Contacting us

You can contact us at the following:

Postal address / Collection Address (this is where any vehicles will be unless stated otherwise): 69 Station yard station Road Fordham CB7 5LW 

Email address: [email protected]

Telephone number: 01638 453300

• Privacy policy

We take privacy issues seriously. Our current privacy policy covers our use of any information you provide. In using our services you acknowledge and agree to be bound by the terms of our privacy policy which can be found here:

• Termination

We, in our sole discretion, reserve the right to issue a warning, temporary suspension, or an indefinite suspension and termination of your rights to use our services if you:

• act inconsistently and in breach of these terms;
• at any time violate or attempt to violate any rights of any other user of our services or third party;
• are engaged in any fraudulent activity; or
• fail to make any payments due to us in accordance with these terms.
• Compliance with laws

You agree to comply with all applicable laws, statutes and regulations concerning your use of our services.

You shall indemnify us against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses suffered or incurred by us arising out of or in connection with any act, omissions or breaches by you of these terms.

• General exclusions
• From time to time our site may contain technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. We expressly exclude all liability howsoever arising for any such inaccuracies or errors.
• We cannot confirm whether the vehicle complies with any applicable health and safety legislation.
• Applicable law

These terms (and any dispute, controversy, proceedings or claim of whatever nature in relation to them) shall be governed and interpreted in accordance with English law and the English courts shall have exclusive jurisdiction in relation thereto.

• Events beyond our control

We will not be in breach of these terms or otherwise liable for any delay in performance to the extent that any delay or failure is due to circumstances beyond our reasonable control and including, without limitation, strikes, lock-outs and other industrial disputes, breakdown of systems or network access, flood, fire, explosion or accident.

If any part of these terms is unenforceable (including any provision in which we exclude our liability to you) the enforceability of any other part of these terms will not be affected.

• Limitation of liability
• References to liability in this clause 22 include every kind of liability arising under or in connection with these terms including but not limited to liability in contract, tort (including negligence), misrepresentation, restitution or otherwise.
• Nothing in these terms is intended to limit any rights you might have under applicable local law or other statutory rights that may not be excluded nor in any way to exclude or limit our liability to you for fraud or for any death or personal injury resulting from our negligence.
• Nothing in this clause 22 shall limit your payment obligations under these terms. 
• The terms and the conditions implied by sections 13 to 15 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 (as amended) and sections 3 to 5 of the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 (as amended) are, to the fullest extent permitted by law, excluded from these terms
• Subject to clause 22.2, our total liability to you shall not exceed the purchase price of the vehicle in relation to which you have suffered a loss.
• Subject to clause 22.2, this clause 22.6 identifies sets out losses the types of losses which we specifically exclude in relation to you:
• Loss of profits.
• Loss of sales or business.
• Loss of agreements or contracts.
• Loss of anticipated savings.
• Loss of use or corruption of software, data or information.
• Loss of or damage to goodwill.
• Indirect or consequential loss.

No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under these terms or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it prevent or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall prevent or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.

• Third parties

These terms do not give rise to any rights under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 (as amended) to enforce any term of these terms.

If we need to notify you of anything in accordance with these terms, we will do so by communicating with you at the email address you provide us with when you register (as updated by you from time to time), and such email shall deemed to have been received at the time of transmission.

• Interpretation
• Clause headings shall not affect the interpretation of these terms.
• References to clauses are to the clauses of these terms,
• Unless the context otherwise requires, words in the singular shall include the plural and the plural shall include the singular.
• Any obligation on a party not to do something includes an obligation not to allow that thing to be done.
• A person includes a natural person, corporate or unincorporated body (whether or not having separate legal personality).
• A reference to a company shall include any company, corporation or other body corporate, wherever and however incorporated or established.
• Any words following the terms including, include, in particular, for example or any similar expression shall be construed as illustrative and shall not limit the sense of the words, description, definition, phrase or term preceding those terms.
• Words in the singular include the plural and in the plural include the singular.
• A reference to a statute or statutory provision is a reference to it as it is in force for the time being taking account of any amendment, extension, or re-enactment and includes any subordinate legislation for the time being in force made under it.

You shall not assign, transfer, mortgage, charge, subcontract, delegate, declare a trust over or deal in any other manner with any of your rights and obligations under these terms.

• Entire agreement

These terms, together with any document expressly referred to within its provisions, contains the entire agreement between (i) us and you, and (ii) you and the seller, relating to the subject matter covered and extinguishes all previous agreements, promises, assurances, warranties, representations and understandings between them, whether written or oral, relating to its subject matter. Nothing in this clause shall limit or exclude any liability for fraud.

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Home / Brands / Pre-Owned / Rolex Yacht-Master II Oystersteel Everose Gold 44mm

Rolex Yacht-Master II Oystersteel Everose Gold 44mm

Ref: m116681-0001, notify me when available.

Everose Gold, Oystersteel

Chronograph, Hours, Minutes, Power Reserve, Rotating Bezel, Seconds

100m (10 ATM)

• Specifications

Brand Heritage

The finest mechanical watches are built to last generations. Westime now presents our curated selection of special pre-owned timepieces, available for sale at our California and Florida boutiques. Tested by Westime’s watchmakers, and covered under Westime’s one-year limited warranty, the Certified Pre-Owned watch selection represents an opportunity to purchase that sold-out limited edition, your first watch from a hard-to-find brand, or simply a fine timepiece at a great value—with the assurance of Westime and its 30-year history as a family-owned business standing behind it.

Have a question?

Speak with your personal concierge

initial findings meaning in research

Data vs. findings vs. insights: the differences explained.

April 23, 2023 2023-04-23

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A shared vocabulary and understanding of data, findings, and insights will enable you to communicate where you are relative to where you need to be in your research analysis.

Data are simply a collection of data points which lack significance individually. As soon as researchers start to do any level of analysis on these data points, we have information. The type of information we have depends on the level of analysis completed. The first level of analysis yields findings, which are patterns among a specific set of data points that still lack critical context. The final level of analysis yields insights, which explain observed patterns and identify actionable opportunities. Insights are what researchers should strive to create.

In This Article:

Raw data lacks context, findings = what happened, not why, insights = opportunities to the business, how to mitigate bias in insights.

Definition: Data refers to an unanalyzed collection of observations about users that may include transcripts, notes, metrics, or survey output.

Data is comprised of single-observation points, otherwise known as data points. The data points are anything that gets captured — for example, user quotes or clicks in a user-testing session. There is no analysis or synthesis that happens at this stage, so no conclusions can be drawn.

Take, for instance, capturing data from a survey. The answers selected by participants would be the data points. If one question in the survey asked participants how likely they are to recommend the system to someone else ,  a single data point would represent the single response from a respondent for that question. The data would represent the collective responses from all respondents for all questions in the survey.

Data can be quantitative or qualitative.  User quotes or behaviors are qualitative data. But task time, success , analytics metrics , or responses to certain survey questions like the net- promoter–score (NPS) question above are quantitative.

Definition: Findings describe patterns in collected data or summaries across it. They lack consideration of background, past research, and organizational factors.

To come up with findings, researchers take the many distinct data points they collected and examine them for patterns. For   qualitative data , they rely on thematic-analysis techniques. Quantitative data is analyzed through statistics.

To extract findings, we look across everything captured, but we can look for patterns only across comparable things. In the survey example above, we could look at all the answers to the NPS question and find that the NPS score is 40, with a margin of error of 10. This is a summary of several data points, so it is a finding. However, there is no context that tells us details, such as whether this score is good and the reason behind this score. Thus, findings are not that useful by themselves.

Context is required to be able to interpret a finding. With findings alone, researchers are not able to determine why a pattern was observed or to make recommendations that are right for users and the business.

Definition: Insights are focused explanations of opportunities, based on other user research and business context.

While findings describe what is observed in the scope of a particular study or time frame of a live product, insights tie specific opportunities to specific user needs and they relate to valuable business objectives. Interpreting findings in context yields insights.

In the case of the NPS question above, consider these additional three pieces of context:

• This question was administered to users of a recently redesigned medical-appointment–booking site. The organization redesigned the website to decrease support call costs resulting from users who struggled to book appointments with specialist providers.
• Before the redesign, the NPS score was 35, with a margin of error of 15.
• Subsequent qualitative usability testing of the redesigned interface revealed that users struggled with it due to weak information scent and medical jargon .

Given this context, here is a potential insight:

Even though the NPS score increased, this difference was not statistically significant compared with the NPS for the older design.  (If you were to plot confidence intervals  for the two metrics, you would see that the one for the original NPS includes the one for the NPS of the redesign). Users struggled to understand the terminology used on the site and had a hard time identifying the correct specialist for their condition. The recommendation is to use plain language to align with users’ existent mental models.

This insight marries the finding around the NPS score with a usability finding that adds important context and highlights a clear opportunity connected to one of the organization’s goals.

Researchers should strategically use insights as a tool to connect their research to recommendations and opportunities. Insights are not meant to be prescriptive; rather, they narrow design possibilities, which can then be tested to find the best one. There are an infinitely many number of design possibilities for any problem, so some initial direction is highly beneficial for efficiency.

Given that the researcher designs the study, facilitates it, analyzes it, and interprets the data, there is inevitably some bias inherent to an insight. The threat posed by bias can be mitigated through the process of triangulation, which means relying on multiple sources of data, multiple approaches to analyzing the data, and multiple researchers doing the analysis, to reduce the chance that one particular researcher’s bias results in a faulty assessment.

Concerns around lack of scientific statistical significance and validity are common, but practically speaking, it is wise to make some recommendation that could have a positive business impact, rather than making no recommendation at all.

Data, findings, and insights are the language we use to communicate significantly different degrees of research analysis that your team as completed. For example, if you are currently working with findings, then you need to develop your analysis further to insights, because you can’t make decisions without understanding context.

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How to Write the Dissertation Findings or Results – Tips

Published by Grace Graffin at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On August 13, 2024

Each  part of the dissertation is unique, and some general and specific rules must be followed. The dissertation’s findings section presents the key results of your research without interpreting their meaning .

Theoretically, this is an exciting section of a dissertation because it involves writing what you have observed and found. However, it can be a little tricky if there is too much information to confuse the readers.

The goal is to include only the essential and relevant findings in this section. The results must be presented in an orderly sequence to provide clarity to the readers.

This section of the dissertation should be easy for the readers to follow, so you should avoid going into a lengthy debate over the interpretation of the results.

It is vitally important to focus only on clear and precise observations. The findings chapter of the  dissertation  is theoretically the easiest to write.

It includes  statistical analysis and a brief write-up about whether or not the results emerging from the analysis are significant. This segment should be written in the past sentence as you describe what you have done in the past.

This article will provide detailed information about  how to   write the findings of a dissertation .

When to Write Dissertation Findings Chapter

As soon as you have gathered and analysed your data, you can start to write up the findings chapter of your dissertation paper. Remember that it is your chance to report the most notable findings of your research work and relate them to the research hypothesis  or  research questions set out in  the introduction chapter of the dissertation .

You will be required to separately report your study’s findings before moving on to the discussion chapter  if your dissertation is based on the  collection of primary data  or experimental work.

However, you may not be required to have an independent findings chapter if your dissertation is purely descriptive and focuses on the analysis of case studies or interpretation of texts.

• Always report the findings of your research in the past tense.
• The dissertation findings chapter varies from one project to another, depending on the data collected and analyzed.
• Avoid reporting results that are not relevant to your research questions or research hypothesis.

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1. Reporting Quantitative Findings

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research  hypothesis or  questions you intend to address as part of your dissertation project.

Report the relevant findings for each research question or hypothesis, focusing on how you analyzed them.

Analysis of your findings will help you determine how they relate to the different research questions and whether they support the hypothesis you formulated.

While you must highlight meaningful relationships, variances, and tendencies, it is important not to guess their interpretations and implications because this is something to save for the discussion  and  conclusion  chapters.

Any findings not directly relevant to your research questions or explanations concerning the data collection process  should be added to the dissertation paper’s appendix section.

Use of Figures and Tables in Dissertation Findings

Suppose your dissertation is based on quantitative research. In that case, it is important to include charts, graphs, tables, and other visual elements to help your readers understand the emerging trends and relationships in your findings.

Repeating information will give the impression that you are short on ideas. Refer to all charts, illustrations, and tables in your writing but avoid recurrence.

The text should be used only to elaborate and summarize certain parts of your results. On the other hand, illustrations and tables are used to present multifaceted data.

It is recommended to give descriptive labels and captions to all illustrations used so the readers can figure out what each refers to.

How to Report Quantitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report quantitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

Two hundred seventeen participants completed both the pretest and post-test and a Pairwise T-test was used for the analysis. The quantitative data analysis reveals a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest scales from the Teachers Discovering Computers course. The pretest mean was 29.00 with a standard deviation of 7.65, while the posttest mean was 26.50 with a standard deviation of 9.74 (Table 1). These results yield a significance level of .000, indicating a strong treatment effect (see Table 3). With the correlation between the scores being .448, the little relationship is seen between the pretest and posttest scores (Table 2). This leads the researcher to conclude that the impact of the course on the educators’ perception and integration of technology into the curriculum is dramatic.

Paired Samples

Paired Samples Correlation

Paired Samples Test

Also Read: How to Write the Abstract for the Dissertation.

2. Reporting Qualitative Findings

A notable issue with reporting qualitative findings is that not all results directly relate to your research questions or hypothesis.

The best way to present the results of qualitative research is to frame your findings around the most critical areas or themes you obtained after you examined the data.

In-depth data analysis will help you observe what the data shows for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be mentioned to the readers.

Additional information not directly relevant to your research can be included in the appendix .

How to Report Qualitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report qualitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

The last question of the interview focused on the need for improvement in Thai ready-to-eat products and the industry at large, emphasizing the need for enhancement in the current products being offered in the market. When asked if there was any particular need for Thai ready-to-eat meals to be improved and how to improve them in case of ‘yes,’ the males replied mainly by saying that the current products need improvement in terms of the use of healthier raw materials and preservatives or additives. There was an agreement amongst all males concerning the need to improve the industry for ready-to-eat meals and the use of more healthy items to prepare such meals. The females were also of the opinion that the fast-food items needed to be improved in the sense that more healthy raw materials such as vegetable oil and unsaturated fats, including whole-wheat products, to overcome risks associated with trans fat leading to obesity and hypertension should be used for the production of RTE products. The frozen RTE meals and packaged snacks included many preservatives and chemical-based flavouring enhancers that harmed human health and needed to be reduced. The industry is said to be aware of this fact and should try to produce RTE products that benefit the community in terms of healthy consumption.

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What to Avoid in Dissertation Findings Chapter

• Avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases and terms such as “confirms,” “reveals,” “suggests,” or “validates.” These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to interpret the results in detail.
• Only briefly explain findings in relation to the key themes, hypothesis, and research questions. You don’t want to write a detailed subjective explanation for any research questions at this stage.

The Do’s of Writing the Findings or Results Section

• Ensure you are not presenting results from other research studies in your findings.
• Observe whether or not your hypothesis is tested or research questions answered.
• Illustrations and tables present data and are labelled to help your readers understand what they relate to.
• Use software such as Excel, STATA, and SPSS to analyse results and important trends.

Essential Guidelines on How to Write Dissertation Findings

The dissertation findings chapter should provide the context for understanding the results. The research problem should be repeated, and the research goals should be stated briefly.

This approach helps to gain the reader’s attention toward the research problem. The first step towards writing the findings is identifying which results will be presented in this section.

The results relevant to the questions must be presented, considering whether the results support the hypothesis. You do not need to include every result in the findings section. The next step is ensuring the data can be appropriately organized and accurate.

You will need to have a basic idea about writing the findings of a dissertation because this will provide you with the knowledge to arrange the data chronologically.

Start each paragraph by writing about the most important results and concluding the section with the most negligible actual results.

A short paragraph can conclude the findings section, summarising the findings so readers will remember as they transition to the next chapter. This is essential if findings are unexpected or unfamiliar or impact the study.

Our writers can help you with all parts of your dissertation, including statistical analysis of your results . To obtain free non-binding quotes, please complete our online quote form here .

Be Impartial in your Writing

When crafting your findings, knowing how you will organize the work is important. The findings are the story that needs to be told in response to the research questions that have been answered.

Therefore, the story needs to be organized to make sense to you and the reader. The findings must be compelling and responsive to be linked to the research questions being answered.

Always ensure that the size and direction of any changes, including percentage change, can be mentioned in the section. The details of p values or confidence intervals and limits should be included.

The findings sections only have the relevant parts of the primary evidence mentioned. Still, it is a good practice to include all the primary evidence in an appendix that can be referred to later.

The results should always be written neutrally without speculation or implication. The statement of the results mustn’t have any form of evaluation or interpretation.

Negative results should be added in the findings section because they validate the results and provide high neutrality levels.

The length of the dissertation findings chapter is an important question that must be addressed. It should be noted that the length of the section is directly related to the total word count of your dissertation paper.

The writer should use their discretion in deciding the length of the findings section or refer to the dissertation handbook or structure guidelines.

It should neither belong nor be short nor concise and comprehensive to highlight the reader’s main findings.

Ethically, you should be confident in the findings and provide counter-evidence. Anything that does not have sufficient evidence should be discarded. The findings should respond to the problem presented and provide a solution to those questions.

Structure of the Findings Chapter

The chapter should use appropriate words and phrases to present the results to the readers. Logical sentences should be used, while paragraphs should be linked to produce cohesive work.

You must ensure all the significant results have been added in the section. Recheck after completing the section to ensure no mistakes have been made.

The structure of the findings section is something you may have to be sure of primarily because it will provide the basis for your research work and ensure that the discussions section can be written clearly and proficiently.

One way to arrange the results is to provide a brief synopsis and then explain the essential findings. However, there should be no speculation or explanation of the results, as this will be done in the discussion section.

Another way to arrange the section is to present and explain a result. This can be done for all the results while the section is concluded with an overall synopsis.

This is the preferred method when you are writing more extended dissertations. It can be helpful when multiple results are equally significant. A brief conclusion should be written to link all the results and transition to the discussion section.

Numerous data analysis dissertation examples are available on the Internet, which will help you improve your understanding of writing the dissertation’s findings.

Problems to Avoid When Writing Dissertation Findings

One of the problems to avoid while writing the dissertation findings is reporting background information or explaining the findings. This should be done in the introduction section .

You can always revise the introduction chapter based on the data you have collected if that seems an appropriate thing to do.

Raw data or intermediate calculations should not be added in the findings section. Always ask your professor if raw data needs to be included.

If the data is to be included, then use an appendix or a set of appendices referred to in the text of the findings chapter.

Do not use vague or non-specific phrases in the findings section. It is important to be factual and concise for the reader’s benefit.

The findings section presents the crucial data collected during the research process. It should be presented concisely and clearly to the reader. There should be no interpretation, speculation, or analysis of the data.

The significant results should be categorized systematically with the text used with charts, figures, and tables. Furthermore, avoiding using vague and non-specific words in this section is essential.

It is essential to label the tables and visual material properly. You should also check and proofread the section to avoid mistakes.

The dissertation findings chapter is a critical part of your overall dissertation paper. If you struggle with presenting your results and statistical analysis, our expert dissertation writers can help you get things right. Whether you need help with the entire dissertation paper or individual chapters, our dissertation experts can provide customized dissertation support .

FAQs About Findings of a Dissertation

How do i report quantitative findings.

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research hypothesis or research questions you intended to address as part of your dissertation project. Report the relevant findings for each of the research questions or hypotheses, focusing on how you analyzed them.

How do I report qualitative findings?

The best way to present the qualitative research results is to frame your findings around the most important areas or themes that you obtained after examining the data.

An in-depth analysis of the data will help you observe what the data is showing for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses that are directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be clearly mentioned for the readers.

Can I use interpretive phrases like ‘it confirms’ in the finding chapter?

No, It is highly advisable to avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases in the finding chapter. These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to provide your interpretation of the results in detail.

Can I report the results from other research papers in my findings chapter?

NO, you must not be presenting results from other research studies in your findings.

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How to Write a Preliminary Report: A Step-by-Step Guide

If you are a project manager or a student, learning how to write a preliminary report is an essential skill. In this guide, we will walk you through every step of the process to help you craft a comprehensive and effective preliminary report.

Understanding the Purpose of a Preliminary Report

Before we dive into the specifics of how to write a preliminary report, it is essential first to understand why you need to write one. A preliminary report is usually a preliminary version of a more comprehensive report that will be written later. It is a concise summary of the findings that have been gathered during the preliminary research stage.

However, the importance of a preliminary report goes beyond just being a summary. It is a critical tool in project management that helps ensure the success of a project. By providing a broad overview of the situation, a preliminary report helps identify potential issues and risks that may impact the project's success.

Defining a Preliminary Report

A preliminary report is a document that presents the initial findings of a study or project. It often includes background information, research methods, findings, and recommendations. The report is intended to provide a broad overview of the situation, so the readers can draw their conclusions.

When writing a preliminary report, it is essential to keep in mind that it is not the final report. Instead, it is a tool to help guide the project in the right direction. The report should be concise, yet comprehensive enough to provide the necessary information to stakeholders.

Importance of a Preliminary Report in Project Management

Project managers use preliminary reports to ensure that all stakeholders are aware of the latest developments and any potential issues. The report provides a summary of the project's progress, identified risks, and other critical factors. Preliminary reports help managers anticipate future hurdles and plan accordingly. Thus, by sharing the preliminary review, they can make informed decisions that steer the project in the right direction.

Moreover, preliminary reports help project managers identify any gaps in the project plan. By analyzing the preliminary report, managers can identify areas that require further research or investigation. This information can then be used to refine the project plan and ensure that the final report is accurate and comprehensive.

In conclusion, a preliminary report is a critical tool in project management that helps ensure the success of a project. It provides a broad overview of the situation, identifies potential issues and risks, and helps project managers anticipate future hurdles. By using a preliminary report, project managers can make informed decisions that steer the project in the right direction. Therefore, it is essential to take the time to write a comprehensive preliminary report that provides all the necessary information to stakeholders.

Preparing to Write Your Preliminary Report

Before you start writing your preliminary report, there are a few things that you need to prepare. These include gathering the necessary information, identifying your audience, and establishing report objectives.

Gathering Relevant Information

Start by gathering all the relevant information and data that you need. The information should be relevant to the project at hand. It includes existing reports, research, and data related to the subject matter. Additionally, you may need to conduct interviews or surveys to gather additional information. Remember to keep track of your sources in case you need to reference them later.

Identifying Your Audience

Knowing your audience is essential when creating a report. Understanding who will be reading and using the report will help you tailor the content and structure to meet their needs. Consider your audience's level of expertise and the purpose of the report when considering the tone and level of technical jargon.

Establishing Report Objectives

Establishing clear objectives for your report will help guide your research and writing efforts. Think about what you want to achieve with the report and ensure your objectives align with the project's overall goals and objectives.

Structuring Your Preliminary Report

The structure of your preliminary report is just as important as the content. The structure enables readers to follow the information logically and understand how each section fits into the broader context.

Creating an Outline

Creating an outline will help you organize your information logically and create a roadmap to guide your writing. Ensure that your report follows a clear and logical structure, breaks down your information into sections with clear headings and subheadings. Along with outlining, you can use bullet points and numbered lists to make the information more scannable and digestible.

Organizing Your Information

Organizing your information effectively is crucial to ensure the report is easy to read and understand. The information should be arranged chronologically or thematically, depending on the type of report and its purpose.

Ensuring Logical Flow

When writing the report, ensure you maintain a logical flow. Each section should be structured logically, and information should be presented clearly and concisely. Avoid including irrelevant information, as this could confuse the reader and make your ideas seem disjointed.

Writing the Preliminary Report

With all the preparation out of the way, it's time to start writing the preliminary report. This section will cover the different sections you need to prepare when writing the report.

Crafting a Strong Introduction

Your introduction should succinctly summarize the report's purpose and provide an overview of the information presented in the report. It should also have a thesis statement that summarizes the key takeaways in the report.

Presenting Your Findings and Analysis

This section should provide a straightforward description of your findings. Furthermore, it should be arranged in such a manner that highlights the key issues and trends. Use tables and graphs if necessary, to show the data that supports your findings.

Addressing Potential Issues and Solutions

Identify potential issues that need addressing and discuss ways to overcome them. Furthermore, be sure to identify the consequences of not addressing the issues or taking corrective action.

Providing Recommendations and Next Steps

This section should provide recommendations on how to resolve any issues identified, the steps to be taken to implement the recommendations, and the projected results of the implementation.

ChatGPT Prompt for Writing a Preliminary Report

Chatgpt prompt.

Please create a detailed and thorough initial document that outlines the key findings and observations of your research or investigation. This report should provide a comprehensive overview of the topic and highlight any significant insights or conclusions that have been drawn thus far.

[ADD ADDITIONAL CONTEXT. CAN USE BULLET POINTS.]

A well-written preliminary report is a valuable tool for project managers, students, and professionals. The report provides essential information about a project's progress and potential issues, enabling managers to make informed decisions. By following the steps outlined in this guide, you can craft a comprehensive and effective preliminary report that meets your project's objectives.

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Reporting the findings

While the writing process for a systematic review is generally like writing any other kind of review ,  there are several aspects to note.  

In writing the systematic review you should provide an  answer to the research question .

Careful  documentation of the methodology  is important as  it should  outline the search process and the selection process . A reader should understand why sources were chosen, how they were assessed, and how conclusions were reached.

The  structure  of the systematic review will differ from the traditional (or narrative) literature review as it should  reflect the stages outlined in the pro tocol .  Refer to the  27 item PRISMA checklist  to see what should be addressed in the protocol.

The value of a systematic review is the  critical reflection and interpretation of the findings .

Reporting the findings of the systematic review will differ slightly if it is to be presented as part of a thesis, or as a manuscript for publication.

The following examples are available from the RMIT Research Repository.

Dissertation / Thesis

• Ear-acupressure for allergic rhinitis
• Ear-acupressure for allergic rhinitis: A systematic review ​
• Acupressure for respiratory allergic diseases: A systematic review of  randomised controlled trials

To see how a systematic review is written check out examples of published papers and/or completed theses.

• Find a systematic review by  searching a database and  examine how the review has been written.  For example, s earch  the  PubMed   database   on  your topic and filter results by  ‘ article type ’ selecting   ‘ systematic reviews. ’
• Find a systematic review paper by searching with the words  ‘ systematic review ’  in the  RMIT Research Repository .  Consider adding an additional topic word.
• HDR candidates may like to ask their supervisor if they can recommend a completed thesis that includes a systematic review . 

The following image shows how to search the Research Repository for a thesis with a systematic r eview  if an a uthor’s name is unknown.  In the search box include a topic along with the words  ‘ systematic review ’  a nd s elect ‘Dissertations & Theses’ from the drop-down menu.

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Summary

Definition:

A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings. It is often used as a tool to quickly communicate the main findings of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or decision-makers.

Structure of Research Summary

The Structure of a Research Summary typically include:

• Introduction : This section provides a brief background of the research problem or question, explains the purpose of the study, and outlines the research objectives.
• Methodology : This section explains the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. It describes the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section presents the main findings of the study, including statistical analysis if applicable. It may include tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains their implications. It discusses the significance of the findings, compares them to previous research, and identifies any limitations or future directions for research.
• Conclusion : This section summarizes the main points of the research and provides a conclusion based on the findings. It may also suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
• References : This section lists the sources cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

How to Write Research Summary

Here are the steps you can follow to write a research summary:

• Read the research article or study thoroughly: To write a summary, you must understand the research article or study you are summarizing. Therefore, read the article or study carefully to understand its purpose, research design, methodology, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the main points : Once you have read the research article or study, identify the main points, key findings, and research question. You can highlight or take notes of the essential points and findings to use as a reference when writing your summary.
• Write the introduction: Start your summary by introducing the research problem, research question, and purpose of the study. Briefly explain why the research is important and its significance.
• Summarize the methodology : In this section, summarize the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. Explain the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Present the results: Summarize the main findings of the study. Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data if necessary.
• Interpret the results: In this section, interpret the results and explain their implications. Discuss the significance of the findings, compare them to previous research, and identify any limitations or future directions for research.
• Conclude the summary : Summarize the main points of the research and provide a conclusion based on the findings. Suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
• Revise and edit : Once you have written the summary, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors. Make sure that your summary accurately represents the research article or study.
• Add references: Include a list of references cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

Example of Research Summary

Here is an example of a research summary:

Title: The Effects of Yoga on Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis

Introduction: This meta-analysis examines the effects of yoga on mental health. The study aimed to investigate whether yoga practice can improve mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life.

Methodology : The study analyzed data from 14 randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of yoga on mental health outcomes. The sample included a total of 862 participants. The yoga interventions varied in length and frequency, ranging from four to twelve weeks, with sessions lasting from 45 to 90 minutes.

Results : The meta-analysis found that yoga practice significantly improved mental health outcomes. Participants who practiced yoga showed a significant reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as stress levels. Quality of life also improved in those who practiced yoga.

Discussion : The findings of this study suggest that yoga can be an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. The study supports the growing body of evidence that suggests that yoga can have a positive impact on mental health. Limitations of the study include the variability of the yoga interventions, which may affect the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion : Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis support the use of yoga as an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. Further research is needed to determine the optimal length and frequency of yoga interventions for different populations.

References :

• Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Dobos, G., & Berger, B. (2013). Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and anxiety, 30(11), 1068-1083.
• Khalsa, S. B. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 48(3), 269-285.
• Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12.

Purpose of Research Summary

The purpose of a research summary is to provide a brief overview of a research project or study, including its main points, findings, and conclusions. The summary allows readers to quickly understand the essential aspects of the research without having to read the entire article or study.

Research summaries serve several purposes, including:

• Facilitating comprehension: A research summary allows readers to quickly understand the main points and findings of a research project or study without having to read the entire article or study. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the research and its significance.
• Communicating research findings: Research summaries are often used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public. The summary presents the essential aspects of the research in a clear and concise manner, making it easier for non-experts to understand.
• Supporting decision-making: Research summaries can be used to support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. This information can be used by policymakers or practitioners to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
• Saving time: Research summaries save time for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders who need to review multiple research studies. Rather than having to read the entire article or study, they can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.

Characteristics of Research Summary

The following are some of the key characteristics of a research summary:

• Concise : A research summary should be brief and to the point, providing a clear and concise overview of the main points of the research.
• Objective : A research summary should be written in an objective tone, presenting the research findings without bias or personal opinion.
• Comprehensive : A research summary should cover all the essential aspects of the research, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research summary should accurately reflect the key findings and conclusions of the research.
• Clear and well-organized: A research summary should be easy to read and understand, with a clear structure and logical flow.
• Relevant : A research summary should focus on the most important and relevant aspects of the research, highlighting the key findings and their implications.
• Audience-specific: A research summary should be tailored to the intended audience, using language and terminology that is appropriate and accessible to the reader.
• Citations : A research summary should include citations to the original research articles or studies, allowing readers to access the full text of the research if desired.

When to write Research Summary

Here are some situations when it may be appropriate to write a research summary:

• Proposal stage: A research summary can be included in a research proposal to provide a brief overview of the research aims, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes.
• Conference presentation: A research summary can be prepared for a conference presentation to summarize the main findings of a study or research project.
• Journal submission: Many academic journals require authors to submit a research summary along with their research article or study. The summary provides a brief overview of the study’s main points, findings, and conclusions and helps readers quickly understand the research.
• Funding application: A research summary can be included in a funding application to provide a brief summary of the research aims, objectives, and expected outcomes.
• Policy brief: A research summary can be prepared as a policy brief to communicate research findings to policymakers or stakeholders in a concise and accessible manner.

Advantages of Research Summary

Research summaries offer several advantages, including:

• Time-saving: A research summary saves time for readers who need to understand the key findings and conclusions of a research project quickly. Rather than reading the entire research article or study, readers can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.
• Clarity and accessibility: A research summary provides a clear and accessible overview of the research project’s main points, making it easier for readers to understand the research without having to be experts in the field.
• Improved comprehension: A research summary helps readers comprehend the research by providing a brief and focused overview of the key findings and conclusions, making it easier to understand the research and its significance.
• Enhanced communication: Research summaries can be used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public, in a concise and accessible manner.
• Facilitated decision-making: Research summaries can support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. Policymakers or practitioners can use this information to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
• Increased dissemination: Research summaries can be easily shared and disseminated, allowing research findings to reach a wider audience.

Limitations of Research Summary

Limitations of the Research Summary are as follows:

• Limited scope: Research summaries provide a brief overview of the research project’s main points, findings, and conclusions, which can be limiting. They may not include all the details, nuances, and complexities of the research that readers may need to fully understand the study’s implications.
• Risk of oversimplification: Research summaries can be oversimplified, reducing the complexity of the research and potentially distorting the findings or conclusions.
• Lack of context: Research summaries may not provide sufficient context to fully understand the research findings, such as the research background, methodology, or limitations. This may lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the research.
• Possible bias: Research summaries may be biased if they selectively emphasize certain findings or conclusions over others, potentially distorting the overall picture of the research.
• Format limitations: Research summaries may be constrained by the format or length requirements, making it challenging to fully convey the research’s main points, findings, and conclusions.
• Accessibility: Research summaries may not be accessible to all readers, particularly those with limited literacy skills, visual impairments, or language barriers.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to write the discussion section of a research paper.

The discussion section of a research paper analyzes and interprets the findings, provides context, compares them with previous studies, identifies limitations, and suggests future research directions.

Updated on September 15, 2023

Structure your discussion section right, and you’ll be cited more often while doing a greater service to the scientific community. So, what actually goes into the discussion section? And how do you write it?

The discussion section of your research paper is where you let the reader know how your study is positioned in the literature, what to take away from your paper, and how your work helps them. It can also include your conclusions and suggestions for future studies.

First, we’ll define all the parts of your discussion paper, and then look into how to write a strong, effective discussion section for your paper or manuscript.

Discussion section: what is it, what it does

The discussion section comes later in your paper, following the introduction, methods, and results. The discussion sets up your study’s conclusions. Its main goals are to present, interpret, and provide a context for your results.

What is it?

The discussion section provides an analysis and interpretation of the findings, compares them with previous studies, identifies limitations, and suggests future directions for research.

This section combines information from the preceding parts of your paper into a coherent story. By this point, the reader already knows why you did your study (introduction), how you did it (methods), and what happened (results). In the discussion, you’ll help the reader connect the ideas from these sections.

Why is it necessary?

The discussion provides context and interpretations for the results. It also answers the questions posed in the introduction. While the results section describes your findings, the discussion explains what they say. This is also where you can describe the impact or implications of your research.

Adds context for your results

Most research studies aim to answer a question, replicate a finding, or address limitations in the literature. These goals are first described in the introduction. However, in the discussion section, the author can refer back to them to explain how the study's objective was achieved. 

Shows what your results actually mean and real-world implications

The discussion can also describe the effect of your findings on research or practice. How are your results significant for readers, other researchers, or policymakers?

What to include in your discussion (in the correct order)

A complete and effective discussion section should at least touch on the points described below.

Summary of key findings

The discussion should begin with a brief factual summary of the results. Concisely overview the main results you obtained.

Begin with key findings with supporting evidence

Your results section described a list of findings, but what message do they send when you look at them all together?

Your findings were detailed in the results section, so there’s no need to repeat them here, but do provide at least a few highlights. This will help refresh the reader’s memory and help them focus on the big picture.

Read the first paragraph of the discussion section in this article (PDF) for an example of how to start this part of your paper. Notice how the authors break down their results and follow each description sentence with an explanation of why each finding is relevant. 

State clearly and concisely

Following a clear and direct writing style is especially important in the discussion section. After all, this is where you will make some of the most impactful points in your paper. While the results section often contains technical vocabulary, such as statistical terms, the discussion section lets you describe your findings more clearly. 

Interpretation of results

Once you’ve given your reader an overview of your results, you need to interpret those results. In other words, what do your results mean? Discuss the findings’ implications and significance in relation to your research question or hypothesis.

Analyze and interpret your findings

Look into your findings and explore what’s behind them or what may have caused them. If your introduction cited theories or studies that could explain your findings, use these sources as a basis to discuss your results.

For example, look at the second paragraph in the discussion section of this article on waggling honey bees. Here, the authors explore their results based on information from the literature.

Unexpected or contradictory results

Sometimes, your findings are not what you expect. Here’s where you describe this and try to find a reason for it. Could it be because of the method you used? Does it have something to do with the variables analyzed? Comparing your methods with those of other similar studies can help with this task.

Context and comparison with previous work

Refer to related studies to place your research in a larger context and the literature. Compare and contrast your findings with existing literature, highlighting similarities, differences, and/or contradictions.

How your work compares or contrasts with previous work

Studies with similar findings to yours can be cited to show the strength of your findings. Information from these studies can also be used to help explain your results. Differences between your findings and others in the literature can also be discussed here. 

How to divide this section into subsections

If you have more than one objective in your study or many key findings, you can dedicate a separate section to each of these. Here’s an example of this approach. You can see that the discussion section is divided into topics and even has a separate heading for each of them. 

Limitations

Many journals require you to include the limitations of your study in the discussion. Even if they don’t, there are good reasons to mention these in your paper.

Why limitations don’t have a negative connotation

A study’s limitations are points to be improved upon in future research. While some of these may be flaws in your method, many may be due to factors you couldn’t predict.

Examples include time constraints or small sample sizes. Pointing this out will help future researchers avoid or address these issues. This part of the discussion can also include any attempts you have made to reduce the impact of these limitations, as in this study .

How limitations add to a researcher's credibility

Pointing out the limitations of your study demonstrates transparency. It also shows that you know your methods well and can conduct a critical assessment of them.  

Implications and significance

The final paragraph of the discussion section should contain the take-home messages for your study. It can also cite the “strong points” of your study, to contrast with the limitations section.

Restate your hypothesis

Remind the reader what your hypothesis was before you conducted the study. 

How was it proven or disproven?

Identify your main findings and describe how they relate to your hypothesis.

How your results contribute to the literature

Were you able to answer your research question? Or address a gap in the literature?

Future implications of your research

Describe the impact that your results may have on the topic of study. Your results may show, for instance, that there are still limitations in the literature for future studies to address. There may be a need for studies that extend your findings in a specific way. You also may need additional research to corroborate your findings. 

Sample discussion section

This fictitious example covers all the aspects discussed above. Your actual discussion section will probably be much longer, but you can read this to get an idea of everything your discussion should cover.

Our results showed that the presence of cats in a household is associated with higher levels of perceived happiness by its human occupants. These findings support our hypothesis and demonstrate the association between pet ownership and well-being. 

The present findings align with those of Bao and Schreer (2016) and Hardie et al. (2023), who observed greater life satisfaction in pet owners relative to non-owners. Although the present study did not directly evaluate life satisfaction, this factor may explain the association between happiness and cat ownership observed in our sample.

Our findings must be interpreted in light of some limitations, such as the focus on cat ownership only rather than pets as a whole. This may limit the generalizability of our results.

Nevertheless, this study had several strengths. These include its strict exclusion criteria and use of a standardized assessment instrument to investigate the relationships between pets and owners. These attributes bolster the accuracy of our results and reduce the influence of confounding factors, increasing the strength of our conclusions. Future studies may examine the factors that mediate the association between pet ownership and happiness to better comprehend this phenomenon.

This brief discussion begins with a quick summary of the results and hypothesis. The next paragraph cites previous research and compares its findings to those of this study. Information from previous studies is also used to help interpret the findings. After discussing the results of the study, some limitations are pointed out. The paper also explains why these limitations may influence the interpretation of results. Then, final conclusions are drawn based on the study, and directions for future research are suggested.

How to make your discussion flow naturally

If you find writing in scientific English challenging, the discussion and conclusions are often the hardest parts of the paper to write. That’s because you’re not just listing up studies, methods, and outcomes. You’re actually expressing your thoughts and interpretations in words.

• How formal should it be?
• What words should you use, or not use?
• How do you meet strict word limits, or make it longer and more informative?

Always give it your best, but sometimes a helping hand can, well, help. Getting a professional edit can help clarify your work’s importance while improving the English used to explain it. When readers know the value of your work, they’ll cite it. We’ll assign your study to an expert editor knowledgeable in your area of research. Their work will clarify your discussion, helping it to tell your story. Find out more about AJE Editing.

Adam Goulston, PsyD, MS, MBA, MISD, ELS

Science Marketing Consultant

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected] .

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

Wordvice Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper Introduction 
• Which Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Title
• Useful Phrases for Academic Writing
• Common Transition Terms in Academic Papers
• Active and Passive Voice in Research Papers
• 100+ Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing
• Tips for Paraphrasing in Research Papers

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Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 5, 2024 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger   research proposal or other project. In either case, you should carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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Chapter 6: Discussion/Conclusion Section(s)

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2: Framing Principal Findings

The next goal in the Discussion and Conclusion section is Framing Principal Findings. The function of this goal is to discuss and establish the meaning of your research results. The name Framing Principal Findings comes from the aim of positioning the outcomes of your study in a way that the reader can understand — typically, within the already existing literature on the topic.

There are four strategies that can be used to achieve the communicative aims of Goal 2. Note that these are primarily associated with discussion of results rather than drawing conclusions about the entirety of the research.

Strategies for Discussion/Conclusion Communicative Goal 2: Framing Principal Findings

• Accounting for results
• Explicating results
• Relating to expectations
• Addressing limitations

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2 Strategy: Accounting for Results

Accounting for results is a way for you to reflect on or further consider the findings of your study. This could be accomplished with or without referencing previous works. You can use this strategy to clarify what may have contributed to, caused, or otherwise affected the results or outcomes. You may also want to suggest reasons or hypotheses that could account for certain findings, and justify the nature of results.

Here are two examples of how you can accomplish this strategy, with strategy-specific language in bold :

• These changes are most probably related to modifications in N uptake into aap2 mesophyll cells, as suggested by upregulation of amino acid importer LHT1 (Figure 7A) and increased uptake of 14C-label. [1]
• That multiple genes in this pathway are underexpressed in hybrids of both species pairs perhaps is a cause or consequence of their sterility. [2]

The Academic Phrasebank website offers a wealth of sentence starters useful to writers in this stage of reporting their research:

General comments and explanations:

• A possible explanation for this might be that …
• Another possible explanation for this is that …
• This result may be explained by the fact that …
• There are, however, other possible explanations.
• These relationships may partly be explained by …
• There are several possible explanations for this result.
• These results are likely to be related to …
• It seems possible that these results are due to …

Reporting inconsistent, counterintuitive, or contradictory findings:

• These differences can be explained in part by …
• This inconsistency may be due to …
• This discrepancy could be attributed to …
• This rather contradictory result may be due to …
• The observed increase in X could be attributed to …
• It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to …
• The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out.
• Differences between X and Y may have influenced …
• These possible sources of error could have affected …
• There are two likely causes for the differences between …
• The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with …
• Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2 Strategy: Explicating Results

The expli cating results strategy explains the reported results in the context of the study and/or in a broader context of the discipline. Here is where you consider your results and their implications. Your readers, of course, will develop their own interpretations or explanations for  why the findings turned out as they did; however, you will want to guide their views as you make an argument explaining your own reasoning.

Here are a couple of examples from published articles in high-impact journals:

• We must therefore conclude , to use the terminology of Goodlad et al. (1979), that the content standards, as formulated by the relevant official bodies, have not been properly incorporated into the formal curriculum, despite their authoritative national status. [3]
• This research also showed that the effectiveness of rotations at reducing the weed seedbank was dependent on the specific crop that initiated the rotations (Fig. 1-3). [4]

The Academic Phrasebank website provides this list of suggested ways to report findings that are related to previous research:

Reporting findings in line with previous research:

• Several reports have shown that …
• As mentioned in the literature review, …
• Prior studies that have noted the importance of …
• Very little was found in the literature on the question of …
• Previous studies evaluating X observed inconsistent results on whether …
• A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature.
• In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.
• These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y.
• It may be that these participants benefitted from …
• The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way: …

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2 Strategy: Relating to Expectations

Relating to expectations reasons about the researchers’ anticipated or unanticipated findings and/or observations. You can use this strategy to point out expected or unexpected results, express your attitudes about the results, often concerning surprise or unsatisfactory findings, and connect findings to initial hypotheses (i.e., to describe how findings were or were not confirmed, as seen in the following examples):

• Hypothesis 1 is verified by unchanged oil content values in rain-fed plot. [5]
• Interestingly, relative to inulin the dimer exhibited higher activity than the tetramer [35]. [6]

The Academic Phrasebank website recommends these phrases that are in line with using this strategy:

• Surprisingly, X was found to …
• What is surprising is that …
• One unanticipated finding was that …
• Surprisingly, no differences were found in …
• This finding was unexpected and suggests that …
• It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition …
• Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between …
• However, the observed difference between X and Y in this study was not significant.
• However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not statistically significant.

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2 Strategy: Addressing Limitations

Addressing limitations is used to evaluate the study by pointing out shortcomings and/or minimizing deficiencies in the research.

The following are examples of how you can realize this strategy, with specific language for expressing these limitations in bold .

• However, the study area spans an overly large region encompassing several climatic zones, which calls into question whether chronologies can simply be averaged. [7]
• Our study was not free of problems, however . For instance, the overall rate of participation in sending feedback by e-mail was just over 50% of all participants (23 corrective feedback e-mails to 44 transcripts in English sessions and 23 corrective feedback e-mails to 43 transcripts in Japanese sessions). [8]

It’s important to note that research reports do not provide information without taking a stance toward that information. Researchers may indicate more or less certainty about their interpretations, and this is especially true of Addressing Limitations. While it’s important, of course, to point to the shortcomings of your study (as no study is perfect), it’s important not to over-emphasize the deficiencies in your research. So, you may want to highlight a contribution that your study makes while simultaneously acknowledging some aspect that was less than ideal. In that case, you would want to hedge or boost accordingly, as showing in these sentence starters from the Academic Phrasebank website :

Sometimes it isn’t necessary to hedge or boost, but rather to simply present the information as neutrally as possible.

• It could be argued that the positive results were due to …
• Although the current study is based on a small sample of participants, the findings suggest …
• While this study did not confirm X, it did …
• Notwithstanding these limitations, the study suggests that …
• Despite its exploratory nature, this study offers some insight into …
• A note of caution is due here since …
• Another source of uncertainty is …
• These results, therefore, need to be interpreted with caution.
• In observational studies, there is a potential for bias from …
• It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.

Key Takeaways

Goal 2 of writing the Discussion/Conclusion section is related to Frame Principal Findings . There are four possible strategies that you can use to accomplish this goal:

• Accounting for results, and/or
• Explicating results, and/or
• Relating to expectations, and/or
• Addressing limitations.

Remember: It isn’t necessary to include all of these strategies — they are simply possibilities for reaching the goal.

• Zhang, L., Tan, Q., Lee, R., Trethewy, A., Lee, Y. H., & Tegeder, M. (2010). Altered xylem-phloem transfer of amino acids affects metabolism and leads to increased seed yield and oil content in Arabidopsis.  The Plant Cell ,  22 (11), 3603-3620. ↵
• Noor, M. A. (2005). Patterns of evolution of genes disrupted in expression in Drosophila species hybrids.  Genetics Research ,  85 (2), 119-125. ↵
• Fukkink, R. G. (2010). Missing pages? A study of textbooks for Dutch early childhood teacher education.  Teaching and Teacher Education ,  26 (3), 371-376. ↵
• Teasdale, J. R., Mangum, R. W., Radhakrishnan, J., & Cavigelli, M. A. (2004). Weed seedbank dynamics in three organic farming crop rotations.  Agronomy Journal ,  96 (5), 1429-1435. ↵
• Bedbabis, S., Rouina, B. B., & Boukhris, M. (2010). The effect of waste water irrigation on the extra virgin olive oil quality from the Tunisian cultivar Chemlali.  Scientia Horticulturae ,  125 (4), 556-561.. ↵
• Artyukhov, V. G., Kovaleva, T. A., Kholyavka, M. G., Bityutskaya, L. A., Grechkina, M. V., & Obraztsova, T. B. (2009). Study of the oligomeric structure and some physicochemical properties of inulinase from Kluyveromyces marxianus Y-303. Biophysics, 54 (6), 675-680. ↵
• Black, B. A., Copenheaver, C. A., Frank, D. C., Stuckey, M. J., & Kormanyos, R. E. (2009). Multi-proxy reconstructions of northeastern Pacific sea surface temperature data from trees and Pacific geoduck.  Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology ,  278 (1-4), 40-47. ↵
• Bower, J., & Kawaguchi, S. (2011). Negotiation of meaning and corrective feedback in Japanese/English eTandem.  Language Learning & Technology ,  15 (1), 41-71. ↵

Preparing to Publish Copyright © 2023 by Sarah Huffman; Elena Cotos; and Kimberly Becker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Communicating Railroad–DOT Mitigation Strategies (2014)

Chapter: chapter 3: summary of initial research findings.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

7 CHAPTER 3 Summary of Initial Research Findings All projects between transportation agencies and railroads that necessitate access to railroad property, expansion into or over transportation agency right-of-way for railroad projects, or incurring or reimbursing of costs, will require some type of agreements between the two parties. Depending on the project, this can mean extensive coordination, approvals, and signoffs from multiple levels within both organizations. Also, depending on the type of project, the coordination can start from the planning phase and continue through design and construction and into the maintenance of the project. Delays at various points in the process can result in increased project costs, adverse impacts to road traffic and rail freight movements, inconvenience to the traveling public, delayed project delivery, safety issues, and, in the case of the railroad companies, potential loss of profits and increased liability. The initial research project included a survey and follow-up meetings to obtain feedback from railroads and local, state, and federal transportation agencies. This research revealed that challenges faced on projects involving transportation agencies and railroads were commonly attributable to the following factors:  Delays in agreement processing;  Nonstandard agreement, resulting in each agreement going through extensive reviews;  Delays in coordination;  Transportation agency designs not meeting railroad requirements;  Insufficient insurance limits;  Communication issues;  Failure to anticipate and address construction issues;  Limited understanding of the differences in objectives, cultures, and operational models;  Inefficient workflow and duplications in workflow activities;  Delays in authorizing work and in making payments;  Strategies used often did not benefit both parties;  Differences in institutional priorities;  No shared interest;  Railroads being very risk-averse; and  Transportation agencies being cautious about spending taxpayer monies and concerns about public opinion. Further, it revealed that the goals, priorities, responsibilities, and perspectives of both organizations are very different, resulting in differences in approach to dealing with such projects. Addressing these different perspectives and objectives is essential to developing

8 solutions for delivering projects that involve both parties, keeping them on schedule and within cost and scope. Lessons learned from the initial research effort showed that positive engagement and collaboration of both parties is very important to address the challenges faced by either. Also, it was evident that partnering will be necessary to streamline the entire process, create win-win solutions, and sustainably address challenges in the long term. The initial research project also found that solutions to several of the above listed challenges had been successfully implemented in isolated pockets across the country. The 2011 communication and dissemination project documented in this report looked at strategies to take these isolated successful innovative solutions, enhance them where appropriate, and disseminate the information more widely. The project team recognized that the dissemination of innovations needed to be done carefully. The stakeholders noted that a marketing blitz might not be the best strategy for this project, because it might disseminate the information without resulting in meaningful progress in addressing the core problem. This could result in insufficient collaboration between the agency and railroad stakeholders, collaboration that is necessary for national adoption of innovations. The team found that an approach that involved the stakeholders working collaboratively would be a more effective way of productively communicating the message, while also positively influencing and triggering the adoption of the innovative practices. It was also felt that any successful strategy for dissemination needed to trigger a willingness among other transportation agency and railroad pairs to try the project innovations and best practices in their environments. Thus, successful widespread acceptance needed the collaborative involvement of both the railroads and transportation agencies.

TRB’s second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2) Renewal Project R16A has released a prepublication, non-edited version of a report titled Communicating Railroad–DOT Mitigation Strategies. This project established a collaborative forum between transportation agencies and railroads and initiated dissemination of the research best practices developed by an earlier SHRP 2 project, Strategies for Improving the Project Agreement Process Between Agencies and Railroads .

SHRP 2 Renewal Project R16 also developed another supplemental report about the development of tools in this project.

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• Open access
• Published: 13 September 2024

A systematic review of medical practitioners’ retention and application of basic sciences to clinical practice

• Francis A. Albert 1 ,
• Abdul-Aziz Seidu 1 ,
• Hannah M. Mason 1 ,
• Emma Anderson 1 ,
• Faith O. Alele 2 ,
• Paula Heggarty 1 ,
• Aaron Hollins 1 ,
• Tarun Sen Gupta 1 ,
• Richard B. Hays 1 ,
• Lawrie McArthur 3 &
• Bunmi S. Malau-Aduli 1 , 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  997 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Medical education offers the foundational base for future healthcare professionals, with basic sciences playing a pivotal role in providing essential knowledge and skills for clinical practice. However, the long-term retention and application of this knowledge in clinical practice remain a significant challenge. This systematic review synthesised global evidence from diverse studies on the short / long-term retention and clinical application of basic sciences among medical doctors.

A comprehensive search was conducted across six databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, Medline, CINAHL, Emcare, and Informit. The review included studies that encompassed a variety of study designs, participant groups, and educational interventions. The Quality Assessment with Diverse Studies (QuADS) tool was utilised to assess the quality of the reviewed studies.

A total of 10 studies were included in the review. The findings revealed that rehearsals significantly optimise the retention of basic science knowledge among medical practitioners. Retention varied by discipline, with medical practitioners retaining more knowledge in anatomy (mean scores ranging from 45.0 to 82.9%), while microbiology had the lowest retention score (39.1%). Factors influencing retention included age, gender, and curriculum type. Educational interventions such as targeted courses, integration of basic sciences with clinical skills, generative retrieval and continuous quality improvement in the curriculum were found to enhance both knowledge retention and clinical reasoning. The concept of ‘encapsulated knowledge’ demonstrates that integrated basic science knowledge helps in synthesising clinical presentations, reducing the need for detailed recall as clinical experience increases. The reviewed studies primarily involved interns and surgeons, leaving a significant gap in research for specialties like internal medicine and primary care/ general practice.

Detailed retention of basic science knowledge may diminish over time; however, the conceptual framework remains essential for ongoing learning and clinical reasoning. This review’s findings highlight the need for specialised educational interventions to improve long-term retention. Continuous professional development and targeted educational techniques are vital for maintaining clinical competence and applying basic science knowledge effectively throughout a medical career. Further research is needed to address gaps in specialty-specific knowledge application and the impact of different instructional methods.

Peer Review reports

Basic sciences are the foundation of modern medical practice and contribute substantially to medical education [ 1 , 2 ]. Anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, microbiology, pathology, pharmacology and immunology underpin the understanding of normal structure and function, pathophysiology, diagnoses and treatment modalities [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. A critical aspect of medical education is the cognitive integration of basic sciences into clinical reasoning and decision-making processes [ 6 ]. This establishes critical links between ‘what’ (possible diagnosis), to ‘how’ (disease mechanisms) and ‘why’ (underlying causes) [ 7 , 8 ], improving diagnostic accuracy and an understanding of key clinical features [ 8 ]. The relevance of basic sciences, first highlighted in Flexner’s 1910 report [ 9 ], remains relevant throughout medical careers, although new knowledge develops continuously in both the sciences and their clinical application [ 5 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, maintaining current knowledge of basic sciences can be a significant challenge [ 1 , 7 , 10 , 13 ].

Long-standing concerns exist regarding the retention of basic sciences knowledge among clinicians [ 5 , 14 , 15 ]. Retention after one year is reported to be approximately 67–75%, decreasing to about 50% after two years [ 16 ], even though basic science knowledge may be relied on when managing a challenging clinical problem [ 13 , 17 , 18 ]. A significant issue in monitoring retention is how this knowledge is assessed. Assessment often relies on multiple-choice questions (MCQs) [ 19 ], typically at the ‘knows’ (factual recall) and ‘knows how’ (knowledge application) levels [ 20 , 21 ] at an early stage of integration with clinical reasoning. On the other hand, clinical assessment is usually at the ‘shows how’, ‘does’ and ‘is’ levels, relying on a combination of ‘working knowledge’ for commonly encountered clinical problems accessing and integrating longer-term stored knowledge when prompted by clinical presentations [ 22 , 23 ].

Factors that may influence knowledge retention include curriculum approaches, frequency of testing, feedback delivery, and perceived clinical relevance [ 24 ]. There also appears to be differences based on gender and level of maturity that are not yet well understood [ 25 ]. Most of the literature on this topic relate to undergraduate medical training but the landscape changes in specialty training (residency and fellowship programs), perhaps due to the inherent diversity and complexity. Here the emphasis is on narrowing and deepening knowledge and skills to the relevant restricted clinical practice (including both supervised practice by interns and independent practice by residents and trained practitioners) [ 26 , 27 ]. Continuing professional development (CPD) differs further, with the emphasis on maintaining currency, often involving new knowledge and skills, following a more self-directed learning approach [ 27 ]. It is likely that specialist clinical practice fosters the development of ‘encapsulated knowledge’, a form of transformed basic science knowledge that attaches relevant basic science knowledge to clinical scenarios and diagnoses [ 28 , 29 ]. With increasing expertise, working memory may consist almost entirely of ‘encapsulated knowledge’ that is focused on the narrower scope of practice.

While clinicians continue to use basic sciences in clinical reasonings, their level of retention of basic science knowledge has not been as fully investigated as it is in the undergraduate medical training context [ 26 ]. For example, a recent review by Castillo et al. [ 30 ] identified interventions designed to aid the transfer of basic science knowledge to clinical reasoning in undergraduate health professions education. This highlights the need to understand the value of basic science knowledge retention in clinical reasoning within the dynamic context of postgraduate clinical practice [ 31 ].

This systematic review aimed to explore the long-term retention and application of basic sciences to clinical practice among medical practitioners. The insights gained may extend the existing body of knowledge and offer valuable strategies for enhancing value and impact of basic sciences in clinical practice. The review addressed the following research questions:

How relevant is the retention of basic sciences knowledge to clinical practice?

Does the study of basic sciences provide a framework for learning concepts that do not need to be retained?

What factors influence the retention, application and utility of basic sciences in clinical practice?

This systematic review adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines [ 32 ].

Data sources and search strategy

Electronic databases were systematically searched from March 6th, 2023, to September 30th 2023, following the development of search terms. These databases included Web of Science, Scopus, Medline, CINAHL, Emcare, and Informit. Search strategies were designed using a mix of free text and subject headings specific to each database, to represent the concepts of medical education, basic science, clinical reasoning, and retention. Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” were used to refine the search strings to meet the unique requirements of each database. This approach aligns with best practice in systematic reviews, as it minimises bias and enhances the comprehensiveness of the search [ 33 ]. The complete search strategies employed in this review are detailed in the supplementary information section (Additional File 1). Additionally, hand searching of the reference lists of the studies included in the review was used to identify further relevant studies.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This systematic review sought primary, peer-reviewed articles published in English, from the year 2000 to 2023. The focus of this review was on medical practitioners’ retention of basic sciences knowledge, its relevance to practice and factors associated with retention. Studies from other disciplines, such as nursing and allied health, were excluded. Also excluded were studies that considered only undergraduate medical students or participants’ perceptions of the value of basic sciences in clinical practice. For more detailed information on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, please refer to Additional File 2.

Study selection

From all databases were uploaded into Rayyan (an online tool for systematic reviews that facilitates the screening and selection of relevant studies) [ 34 ]. The initial screening process included studies conducted in both undergraduate and postgraduate settings to ensure a comprehensive review of the available literature. This led to a larger pool of studies in the initial review process but ensured that all relevant studies, particularly those combining different educational levels, were thoroughly considered before application of exclusion criteria. The review was conducted independently by five authors (FAA, BSM-A, FOA, AS, and HM), who first went through each study’s title and abstract and eliminated studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria. Following this, a full-text screening of the remaining studies was performed by the same authors. Only those studies that met the eligibility criteria were included in the final review. Any disagreements that arose during the screening process were addressed and resolved through consensus in weekly meetings with the entire project team.

Data extraction strategy

A standardised data extraction form was created using Microsoft Office Excel and data from the eligible articles were extracted by FAA and AS. The data extracted included the study title, authors, publication year, country, study aim/objectives, study design, setting, participants, and key findings in relation to knowledge retention, application and utility of basic sciences. Any discrepancies in data extraction were resolved through discussions involving all team members to achieve consensus. This rigorous approach ensured the accuracy and consistency of the data extraction process.

Quality appraisal

Quality appraisal is recommended in systematic reviews, particularly when they encompass diverse methodologies [ 35 , 36 ]. In this review, two authors (FAA & AS) independently appraised all included studies using the Quality Assessment of Diverse Studies (QuADS) tool, developed by Harrison et al. [ 37 ], a modified version of the Quality Assessment Tool for Studies with Diverse Designs (QATSDD) [ 38 ]. This tool includes 13 criteria describing the quality of studies in systematic reviews. Any disagreements were resolved in a consensus meeting, ensuring a unified and comprehensive evaluation of all studies. Studies were not excluded based on their quality rating, though the significance of their findings were considered when reporting the results and drawing conclusions.

Search results

A total of 4381 articles were identified in the initial search. After duplicates were removed, 3254 articles were eligible for title and abstract screening. We excluded 3129 articles that were deemed irrelevant to the topic, leaving 75 articles for full text screening. Seven of these articles met the inclusion criteria. An additional three studies were identified through hand-searching the references of the already identified studies. Therefore, a total of 10 studies were included in the systematic review. Details of the search strategy is presented in the PRISMA flow chart (Fig.  1 ).

Study characteristics

The studies included in this systematic review were published between 2002 and 2022 (Table  1 ). Many of the studies (80%, n  = 8) adopted quantitative study design such as cross-sectional, prospective, or randomized controlled trial (RCT) [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], with one study each employing multi-methods [ 47 ] and a qualitative approach [ 48 ] respectively. Of the 10 studies [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ], four were conducted in Saudi Arabia [ 39 , 40 , 44 , 46 ], two each in the Netherlands [ 42 , 48 ] and USA [ 41 , 45 ], and one each in Canada [ 47 ] and the UK [ 43 ]. Most of the studies (80%, n  = 8) [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ] were conducted in academic settings such as universities, while the remaining (20%, n  = 2) [ 43 , 44 ] were conducted in clinical settings. The studies varied in terms of participant demographics, with the number of participants ranging from 10 to 300. Half of the studies (50%, n  = 5) involved a population of interns [ 39 , 40 , 44 , 46 , 48 ], three (30%, n  = 3) involved residents [ 41 , 45 , 47 ], and one each (10%, n  = 1) included senior doctors [ 42 ] and combined residents and interns [ 43 ]. The residents’ specialisations included radiation oncology, anaesthesiology, and medical physics. In terms of curriculum, four (40%, n  = 4) of the studies employed a combination of traditional and problem based learning (PBL) curriculum [ 39 , 40 , 44 , 46 ], while the rest (60%, n  = 6) did not specify the type of curriculum employed [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 48 ]. Over half of the studies (60%, n  = 6) used assessment to examine the retention of basic science [ 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 46 ]; one study considered the association between basic sciences and clinical reasoning [ 48 ], while the rest of the studies (40%, n  = 4) employed various forms of education or learning interventions [ 41 , 45 , 47 , 48 ]. Anatomy was the most examined basic science subject (60%, n  = 6) in the included studies [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 48 ], followed by biochemistry [ 42 , 44 ] and physiology [ 39 , 42 ] with two (20%, n  = 2) studies each, and one study ( n  = 1) each for microbiology [ 40 ], pathology [ 42 ], and pharmacology [ 46 ]. In terms of the outcome(s) measured, knowledge retention was the focus of most studies (70%, n  = 7) [ 39 , 40 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], followed by a combination of knowledge retention and perceived value in two studies (20%, n  = 2) [ 41 , 47 ], and clinical reasoning in one study (10%, n  = 1) [ 48 ].

PRISMA flow diagram [ 32 ]

Knowledge retention and relevance of basic sciences

Nine studies [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ] reported on knowledge retention of the basic sciences among medical practitioners (Table  1 ). Four of the studies [ 41 , 43 , 45 , 47 ] focused on anatomy, while one study each focused on physiology [ 39 ], biochemistry [ 44 ], pharmacology [ 46 ], and microbiology [ 40 ]. In addition, one study [ 42 ] assessed four basic science disciplines (anatomy, biochemistry, physiology and pathology). Knowledge retention was assessed in these studies using tests or examinations. While all studies used known assessment tools, the measures used to report knowledge retention varied, including proportions of participants who passed and mean pass scores. Three of the four studies [ 41 , 45 , 47 ] used an intervention approach where the pre-test and post-test scores of participants were, respectively, 45–60% and 72–86%, 3 months later. The fourth study [ 43 ] investigated anatomy knowledge based on the number of years post-graduation from medical school. Newly qualified doctors and doctors who were two to four years postgraduation had average scores of 72.1% and 77.1%, respectively, while doctors in training with four or more years of experience and doctors who worked as anatomy demonstrators had higher scores of 82.4% and 82.9% respectively [ 43 ].

Knowledge retention in other basic science disciplines, including physiology, biochemistry, microbiology, and pharmacology, was assessed separately, and showed similar findings. Biochemistry and pharmacology showed similar retention scores with mean scores of 45.3 ± 15.8% [ 44 ] and 45.1 ± 19.7% [ 46 ], respectively. Microbiology had the lowest mean score of 39.1 ± 18% [ 40 ]. Where all four disciplines (anatomy, biochemistry, physiology and pathology) were assessed, doctors who had recently graduated from medical school achieved an average score of 40%. The scores declined with increasing years post-graduation with doctors who graduated more than 50 years ago achieving a 25% correct score [ 42 ]. On the other hand, mean scores were not reported for physiology, rather 26% of the participants were reported to have passed the knowledge test [ 39 ].

Influence of basic science retention on clinical reasoning ability

Only one study [ 48 ] examined the influence of anatomy knowledge on clinical reasoning/decision making. Junior doctors were observed to apply anatomical knowledge, acquired from practice-based learning, throughout all phases of patient consultations, particularly during physical examination. The use of anatomical terms was closely linked to clinical reasoning, suggesting that doctors visualised the relevant anatomical information during their consultations [ 48 ]. Interestingly, about half of the doctors were not consciously aware of this visualisation process until the recall phase [ 48 ]. Some mental processes during the consultation excluded verbalisation as they were either partly unconscious, implicit, or overshadowed by new, reflective thoughts [ 48 ]. All participants reported visualising the necessary anatomical structures for the task during the consultation.

Factors influencing basic sciences knowledge retention

Five studies examined the influences on the retention of basic sciences [ 39 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 46 ]. Two of these studies [ 39 , 40 ] identified predictors of knowledge retention, while the other three studies [ 42 , 44 , 46 ] identified associated factors. Predictors of knowledge retention were age, curriculum type, and retention interval (Table  2 ). Age and curriculum type were predictors of physiological knowledge recall [ 39 ]. Scores showed an inverse relationship with age, highlighting that younger doctors had a better recall of knowledge compared to their older counterparts [ 39 ]. In addition, graduates from traditional or conventional schools performed better than those from integrated schools. Retention interval was inversely related to scores and predicted knowledge recall/ performance in four basic science disciplines (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology). This implies that individuals who have been out of medical school for a longer time tend to have fewer correct answers compared to recent graduates. Three studies [ 40 , 44 , 46 ] reported on factors that influence knowledge retention, these include gender, preparation for examinations, type of curriculum and type of college. Females were reported to score higher than males, and individuals preparing for qualifying examinations scored higher than their counterparts [ 46 ]. In terms of curriculum, there were conflicting results. In some cases, participants from institutions with conventional educational approaches performed better than those trained based on hybrid or innovative educational methods such as problem-based learning (PBL) [ 39 , 44 ]. Another study [ 40 ] indicated that interns who graduated from private colleges performed significantly better compared to those from government colleges.

Study quality

As shown in Table  3 , the results of the QuADS assessment revealed variations in the quality assessment criteria of the reviewed studies. The articles scored between 22 and 36 out of a possible 39. The reviewed studies excelled in areas such as the articulation of research aims and objectives, providing a clear description of the research setting and target population, detailing the data collection process, the appropriateness of the analytical method used, and the relevance of the study design in achieving the research aims. However, the studies scored lower in areas like the theoretical or conceptual foundations of the research and the justification for the chosen analytical method. Notably, more than half of the studies (60%, n  = 6) [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 46 ] scored zero for not considering research stakeholders in the research design or implementation. This highlights the need for improved engagement with participants and stakeholders in the co-design of research.

This systematic review provides a comprehensive analysis of the long-term retention and clinical application of basic science knowledge among medical practitioners. It emphasises that retaining basic science knowledge is fundamental for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning. Basic sciences form the foundation for understanding complex clinical concepts and enhance overall clinical competence. Although natural knowledge decay occurs over time, effective educational interventions and continuous professional development significantly improve retention and application, helping practitioners handle diverse clinical challenges. These findings align with research suggesting that memory and cognitive abilities may decline with age, and instructional methods during medical education impact knowledge retention [ 16 ].

The review highlights the critical role of retaining basic science knowledge in developing clinical expertise. For example, detailed anatomical knowledge significantly affects diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning, particularly in specialties like radiation oncology [ 47 ]. A gap often exists between theoretical knowledge and practical application, necessitating tailored educational approaches. Senior professionals and clinical-year students may exhibit lower basic science knowledge due to insufficient rehearsal and traditional teaching methods that fail to integrate theory with clinical practice [ 49 , 50 ]. Effective instructional interventions such as continuing education, dissection courses, generative retrieval, and integrated anatomy training enhance knowledge retention and application [ 42 , 45 , 47 ].

Factors like age, gender, and curriculum type (e.g., Problem-Based Learning) influence basic science retention, with younger practitioners typically retaining knowledge better [ 16 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. Doctors who graduated more than 50 years ago had lower scores in basic sciences, potentially due to restricted practice scope, fewer practice hours, changes in medical education, and natural cognitive decline [ 42 ]. Continuous professional development and targeted educational techniques are crucial for maintaining clinical competence and ensuring effective application of basic science knowledge throughout the medical career [ 54 , 55 ]. Schmidt and Rikers [ 51 ] describe how basic science knowledge, through extensive clinical experience, integrates into higher-level clinical concepts or “illness scripts,” facilitating efficient case processing. Teaching basic sciences within a clinical context and introducing patient problems early in the curriculum are essential for developing ‘encapsulated knowledge’, highlighting the importance of integrating and retaining basic science knowledge [ 5 ].

While detailed retention of basic science knowledge may diminish over time, the conceptual framework remains crucial for ongoing learning and clinical reasoning [ 1 , 2 , 7 , 10 ]. The concept of ‘encapsulated knowledge’ shows that integrated basic science knowledge aids in synthesising clinical presentations, reducing the need for detailed recall as clinical experience grows [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Research indicates that basic science knowledge improves diagnostic accuracy over time, with students who learned causal explanations for symptoms retaining diagnostic information better than those who learned epidemiological information [ 56 ]. This suggests that basic science knowledge provides a coherent framework that enhances recall and organisation of clinical information, improving diagnostic skills.

Curriculum reforms integrating basic sciences with clinical training are vital for building a robust foundation for clinical practice [ 8 ]. This insight underlines the importance of basic sciences not just for their content but for structuring advanced clinical concepts, essential for developing competent clinicians [ 6 ]. A study showed that higher scores among anatomy demonstrators were likely due to repeated teaching exposure, while improved scores among doctors with more years post-graduation suggest the reinforcing effect of clinical practice [ 43 ]. Measuring clinicians’ retention of basic science information, even if not directly relevant to current practice, has significant implications. Basic science knowledge often underpins critical thinking and clinical decision-making, and retention supports a broader understanding of patient care and treatment mechanisms. It becomes crucial in unexpected situations or complex cases requiring holistic understanding [ 2 , 7 ]. Retaining basic science information, even if not directly relevant, maintains overall clinical competence and adaptability [ 14 ]. Frequent testing and relearning help clinicians stay prepared for various clinical challenges, enabling effective integration of new information and enhancing clinical skills over time. The concept of ‘encapsulated knowledge’ suggests that while detailed knowledge might not be explicitly retained, principles and frameworks from basic sciences are internalised and used in clinical reasoning [ 29 , 51 , 57 ]. Measuring retention helps identify gaps in understanding, guiding targeted educational interventions to reinforce critical concepts [ 58 ].

The observed differences between men and women [ 59 , 60 ], graduates of private and government college education [ 40 ] and confusion over the impact of instructional methods [ 25 ], require further exploration. Notably, existing studies were conducted among interns, and surgeons with no study conducted in specialities like internal medicine, primary care or general practice. This is a significant gap in the literature, as medical practitioners irrespective of their area of specialisation often need to apply a broad range of basic science knowledge in their practice [ 59 ].

Strengths and limitations

The major strength of this review lies in its comprehensive analysis, drawing from a diverse range of studies with different designs, participant groups, and educational interventions. The use of the QuADS tool for quality assessment ensured a robust evaluation of included studies. Although the QuADS review indicated that the studies were generally of average quality, they collectively provide valuable insights into the long-term retention and application of basic sciences knowledge. These studies contribute to identifying key trends and gaps in current medical education practices, thereby guiding future research and educational plans. The inclusion of studies predominantly from Saudi Arabia, may introduce regional biases, affecting the generalisability of the findings. While this review provides valuable insights across different educational and healthcare contexts, cautious interpretation is necessary when applying the results to other regions. Other limitations include variability in the scope of medical programs, English language bias, and the predominance of cross-sectional studies, which may limit the generalisability of findings. Additionally, the relatively small number of studies on certain disciplines may constrain interpretation, although they highlight significant gaps in the literature.

This systematic review provides a comprehensive analysis of the long-term retention and clinical application of basic science knowledge among medical practitioners. The review underscores the critical importance of retaining basic science knowledge for effective clinical practice. Detailed knowledge is essential for clinical accuracy, while foundational concepts support clinical reasoning and new information synthesis. Effective educational interventions, including continuous education and generative retrieval, mitigate knowledge decay and ensure high standards of care. Integrating basic and clinical sciences is crucial for lifelong learning and clinical competence, ultimately enhancing patient outcomes. Tailored educational approaches and ongoing professional development are necessary to address knowledge gaps and maintain clinical excellence.

Data availability

The dataset supporting the findings of this review is included within the article and its supplementary files.

Abbreviations

Generative Retrieval

Long-Term Retention

Problem Based Learning

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

The Quality Assessment with Diverse Studies

Transesophageal Echocardiography

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This systematic review was funded by the Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine.

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Albert, F.A., Seidu, AA., Mason, H.M. et al. A systematic review of medical practitioners’ retention and application of basic sciences to clinical practice. BMC Med Educ 24 , 997 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05952-8

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The Effectiveness of AI on K-12 Students’ Mathematics Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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Artificial intelligence (AI) shows increasing potential to improve mathematics instruction, yet integrative quantitative evidence currently is lacking on its overall effectiveness and factors influencing success. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigate the effectiveness of AI on improving mathematics performance in K-12 classrooms compared to traditional classroom instruction. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, we searched five databases from 2000 through December 2023, synthesizing findings from 21 relevant studies (40 samples) which met screening criteria. Results indicate a small overall effect size of 0.343 favoring AI under a random-effects model, showing a generally positive impact. Only one variable, AI type, was identified as having moderate effects, with AI demonstrating a greater impact when served as an intelligent tutoring system and adaptive learning system. Our findings establish an initial knowledge base for implementation and future research on the effective integration of AI into K–12 mathematics classrooms. This study also focuses on the appropriateness across age, mathematical contents, and AI design factors is aimed at further advancing the judicious adoption and success of classroom AI integration.

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School of Mathematical Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200241, China

Linxuan Yi, Di Liu, Tiancheng Jiang & Yucheng Xian

Di Liu had the idea for the article, and all authors contributed to the study design. Searching procedure, quality evaluation, data extraction and descriptive coding were conducted by Di Liu, Linxuan Yi, Tiancheng Jiang and Yucheng Xian. Data analysis was conducted by Linxuan Yi and Di Liu. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Linxuan Yi and it was critically revised by Di Liu. All authors commented on previous versions of manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Correspondence to Di Liu .

Conflict of interests.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. This study did not require direct contact to human participants nor an ethical approval. The authors state that the research met all ethical requirements.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Yi, L., Liu, D., Jiang, T. et al. The Effectiveness of AI on K-12 Students’ Mathematics Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J of Sci and Math Educ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-024-10499-7

Received : 22 April 2023

Accepted : 19 August 2024

Published : 12 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-024-10499-7

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NEW RESEARCH FROM THE NATIONAL ECZEMA ASSOCIATION AIMS TO ESTABLISH PATIENT-CENTERED CLINICAL DEFINITION OF 'FLARE'

'Flare' is commonly used in eczema care and clinical research, but with little agreement on what it means.

NOVATO, Calif. , Sept. 13, 2024 /PRNewswire/ -- The  National Eczema Association (NEA) today announced the publication of its real-world research identifying patient-reported attributes associated with an atopic dermatitis (eczema) 'flare' to develop a patient-centered, consensus-based working definition of the term. The latest results from the study have been published in the Journal of the American Medical Association Dermatology . Initial study findings were previously published in the  British Journal of Dermatology .

Over 31 million Americans live with eczema, a chronic skin disease without a known cause or cure that is associated with significant and multifaceted burden. 'Flare' is a term commonly used by eczema patients, healthcare providers, and clinical researchers, but with little agreement on what it means; meanwhile, flare management is a significant unmet research and treatment need.

"When it comes to eczema, flare is a nearly ubiquitous term," said Wendy Smith Begolka , senior author of the study and chief strategy officer at NEA.

Generally, the term "flare" describes a worsening of symptoms. It's a word used in conversations between patients and healthcare providers and one used to gauge if eczema is being well managed or if a particular treatment is having an impact.

"But there's actually no single standardized definition of an eczema flare and no definition that incorporates patients' lived experiences and perspectives," Smith Begolka said. "In this study, we wanted to get closer to defining what 'flare' actually signifies to people with eczema."

Research methods NEA researchers first conducted online focus group discussions with 29 adults with eczema to learn how they describe eczema flares, how they recognize a flare's beginning and ending, and how they relate to current flare definitions. Transcripts of the conversations were then analyzed for common themes, which were developed into possible 'flare' definitional statements. Focus group participants were mostly female (69%), Asian or Asian American (35%), 18–35 years old (62%) and diagnosed with eczema in childhood (83%). All participants self-reported moderate or severe eczema when their eczema is at its worst.

A modified eDelphi approach was used to assess consensus among the focus group participants on which statements about AD flares were important to include in a patient-centered definition. Fifteen statements that achieved focus group consensus were then evaluated among a wider group of adults with AD in a survey. The 631 survey participants were mostly female (85%), White (70%), average age of 45.5 years, and diagnosed with eczema in childhood (56%).

Key takeaways While more work on this topic is needed, analysis of focus group discussions revealed six themes on what patients felt were important in a flare definition. They include:

A change from the person's perceived baseline or "normal"

Mental, emotional and social consequences of flares

Physical changes in the skin

Increased demand for and focus on management of their eczema

Experiencing the itch-scratch-burn cycle

Loss of control and loss of some quality of life related to the flare

These themes resulted in 12 flare definitional statements that achieved agreement across a wider adult AD patient population with the top three being: Acute worsening of symptoms, changes in physical health that interrupt the day-to-day, and an eruption on some area of the body.

According to the focus groups and survey respondents, existing definitions of "flares" that have been used in research and clinical trials do not adequately reflect their experiences because these definitions often: incorporate numeric scales which are difficult to apply to multi-dimensional experiences; focus solely on the skin, neglecting other aspects of a real-life flare; and include language that's "too clinical" to be fully relevant from the patient perspective.

In contrast to previously published definitions of flare focused solely on increased intensity of signs and symptoms of eczema, participants in this study with lived experience with eczema highlighted the importance of downstream consequences, including the increased attention required to manage the condition and interruption of daily activities.

The results of this study highlight the complexity and diversity of eczema flare experiences from adult patient perspectives and how current definitions of flares do not resonate with many people with eczema.

"As one study participant told us, 'a flare is deeper than the skin,'" said Smith Begolka. "Better understanding of this can improve patient-provider communication, relationships, and shared decision-making."

The NEA research team is continuing to work on this important topic with the goal of having a shared language between patients, healthcare providers, and treatment developers about eczema flares.

For more information about this study and other research conducted by NEA, visit NationalEczema.org/surveys .

About the National Eczema Association Founded in 1988, the National Eczema Association (NEA) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit and the largest patient advocacy organization serving the over 31 million Americans who live with eczema and those who care for them. NEA provides programs and resources to elevate the diverse lived experience of eczema, and help patients and caregivers understand their disease, actively engage in their care, find strength in one another – and improve their lives. Additionally, NEA advances critical eczema research and partners with key stakeholders to ensure the patient voice is represented and valued in education, care and treatment decision-making. The eczema community is at an exciting juncture, with increased recognition of the seriousness and burden of eczema and a surge in scientific interest and development of new treatments. Bolstered by NEA's strategic plan, Blueprint 2025 , we are driving toward the ultimate vision: a world without eczema. Learn more at NationalEczema.org .

View original content to download multimedia: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-research-from-the-national-eczema-association-aims-to-establish-patient-centered-clinical-definition-of-flare-302247546.html

SOURCE National Eczema Association

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Research Article

Demographic-environmental effect on dengue outbreaks in 11 countries

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Statistics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Roles Data curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Mathematics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Miyan Research Institute, International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Uttara, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Roles Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

• Anamul Haque Sajib, 
• Sabina Akter, 
• Goutam Saha, 
• Zakir Hossain

• Published: September 11, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Dengue outbreaks are common in tropical or temperate countries, and climate change can exacerbate the problem by creating conditions conducive to the spread of mosquitoes and prolonging the transmission season. Warmer temperatures can allow mosquitoes to mature faster and increase their ability to spread disease. Additionally, changes in rainfall patterns can create more standing water, providing a breeding ground for mosquitoes.

The objective of this study is to investigate the correlation between environmental and demographic factors and the dissemination of dengue fever. The study will use yearly data from 2000 to 2021 from 11 countries highly affected by dengue, considering multiple factors such as dengue cases, temperatures, precipitation, and population to better understand the impact of these variables on dengue transmission.

In this research, Poisson regression (PR) and negative binomial regression (NBR) models are used to model count data and estimate the effect of different predictor variables on the outcome. Also, histogram plots and pairwise correlation plots are used to provide an initial overview of the distribution and relationship between the variables. Moreover, Goodness-of-fit tests, t-test analysis, diagnostic plots, influence plots, and residual vs. leverage plots are used to check the assumptions and validity of the models and identify any outliers or influential observations that may be affecting the results.

The findings indicate that mean temperature and log(Urban) had a positive impact on dengue infection rates, while maximum temperature, log(Precipitation), and population density had a negative impact. However, minimum temperature, log(Rural), and log(Total population) did not demonstrate any significant effects on the incidence of dengue.

The impact of demographic-environmental factors on dengue outbreaks in 11 Asian countries is illuminated by this study. The results highlight the significance of mean temperature (Tmean), maximum temperature (Tmax), log(Urban), log(Precipitation), and population density in influencing dengue incidence rates. However, further research is needed to gain a better understanding of the role of additional variables, such as immunity levels, awareness, and vector control measures, in the spread of dengue.

Citation: Sajib AH, Akter S, Saha G, Hossain Z (2024) Demographic-environmental effect on dengue outbreaks in 11 countries. PLoS ONE 19(9): e0305854. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854

Editor: James Colborn, Clinton Health Access Initiative, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Received: March 20, 2024; Accepted: June 5, 2024; Published: September 11, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Sajib et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data availability statement: All the data is deposited in our repository and freely available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25745295.v1 .

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Dengue virus is responsible for causing dengue fever, a viral illness transmitted to humans when an Aedes mosquito carrying the virus bites them. Symptoms of dengue fever usually include fever, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, and a distinct skin rash. In severe cases, dengue fever can progress to a life-threatening form called dengue hemorrhagic fever. With an estimated 390 million cases occurring annually, dengue fever is a significant global health concern that predominantly affects tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with urban and semi-urban areas being at higher risk. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified dengue fever as a primary cause of illness and mortality in some Asian and Latin American countries. Climate change, population growth, and increased travel and trade have all contributed to the spread of the disease in recent years. Moreover, Dengue and climate change are closely linked, as the mosquitoes that transmit the dengue virus thrive in warm and humid environments. As the global temperature increases, the range of these mosquitoes is expected to expand, leading to a higher risk of dengue transmission in new areas. Climate change also affects precipitation patterns and can lead to increased flooding and standing water, which provide ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes. In addition, extreme weather events such as cyclones and hurricanes can disrupt public health infrastructure and vector control measures, making it harder to prevent and control outbreaks of dengue. Furthermore, Climate change can also impact human populations in ways that increase their risk of infection, such as population displacement, economic stress, and reduced access to health care. WHO has acknowledged the potential influence of climate change on the spread of vector-borne illnesses, including dengue, and has urged heightened endeavors to adjust to and alleviate these consequences.

Banu et al. [ 1 ] used data from the years 2000–2010 to project future dengue outbreaks in Dhaka, Bangladesh. They found a strong association between temperature and humidity with dengue outbreaks. They also projected that an increase in temperature of 3.3 °C by 2100 would result in a significant increase in dengue cases. Dhewantara et al. [ 2 ] used data from the Ministry of Health, Indonesia from 2012–2017 to study the ecological factors affecting dengue incidence in Bali. They found that rainfall, elevation, and population density were associated with dengue transmission in Bali. Jácome et al. [ 3 ] investigated the association of meteorological variables with dengue fever in Guayaquil, Ecuador in 2012. They found that precipitation, maximum and minimum temperatures, solar radiation, wind velocity, and wind vapor pressure were all associated with dengue outbreaks. Jayaraj et al. [ 4 ] developed a model using weather and dengue incidence data to predict future dengue incidence in Tawau district, Malaysia, using data collected from 2006 to 2016. They observed that an outbreak of dengue transmission is associated with mean temperature, minimum temperature, and humidity. They also found that rainfall is not a significant factor for dengue outbreaks which is unusual as rainfall is known to be helpful for mosquito breeding sites. Xu et al. [ 5 ] examined the imported dengue cases from two Indonesian cities, Bali and Jakarta, to Australia. They used data collected from Bali (2007–2013) and Jakarta (2001–2017) and found that an increase in dengue cases is associated with an increase in mean temperature and rainfall.

Liu et al. [ 6 ] investigated the relationship between climate factors and dengue outbreaks in China using data from 1980–2016. They found that population density, mean temperature, precipitation, and humidity had a positive association with dengue outbreaks. Prabodanie et al. [ 7 ] examined the relationship between climate factors and dengue incidence dynamics in the dry and wet zones of Colombo & Batticaloa, Sri Lanka using data collected from 2009–2017. They found that temperature had no relation with dengue incidence in both the dry and wet zones. However, population density, rainfall, and humidity showed an association with dengue spread. Akter et al. [ 8 ] employed Bayesian spatial analysis to investigate the correlation between weather, socio-ecological factors, and dengue occurrence in Queensland, Australia. The data was gathered from 2010–2015. They found that average rainfall and an increase in terrace houses were significantly associated with an increase in dengue incidence. Cheng et al. [ 9 ] used a Bayesian spatial model to investigate the association between climate variables and dengue incidence in Guangdong, China. They found that extremely high temperatures and rainfall have a strong positive association with dengue incidence. However, they also found that the spatial variability of extremely high temperatures did not show any association with dengue outbreaks, while the opposite behavior was observed for extremely high rainfall. Davis et al. [ 10 ] proposed a Suitable Conditions Index (SCI) to predict future dengue forecasts in six Asia-Pacific countries. They used data collected from 2005 to 2018. They presented projected scenarios for 2030, 2050, and 2070 and suggested that the South East Asia (SEA) region will be most suitable for future dengue outbreaks, while Australia and China will be less suitable for mosquitoes breeding due to the less favorable conditions. This is an alarming finding for the SEA region as the socioeconomic and environmental factors and global warming effects are likely to have a severe impact on dengue outbreaks.

Haider et al. [ 11 ] discussed the importance of mosquito control in reducing dengue outbreaks in Bangladesh. They used data collected from 2008 to 2019 and found that temperature and rainfall are strongly associated with the growth rate of dengue cases. The authors suggest that controlling mosquitoes, which are vectors of dengue, can be an effective way to reduce the incidence of dengue outbreaks. Muñoz et al. [ 12 ] investigated the relationship between local climates, ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation), and dengue outbreaks in Columbia. The data collection period was from 2007 to 2017. They found that there is a strong correlation between dengue transmission, maximum temperature, and wind velocity. They also found a weak correlation between dengue outbreaks, humidity, and precipitation. This suggests that while temperature and wind velocity are key factors affecting dengue transmission, humidity and precipitation may have less of an impact. Seah et al. [ 13 ] investigated the relationship between heat waves and maximum temperature on dengue incidence in Singapore. The data collection period was from 2009 to 2018. They found that dengue infection reduced as heat and temperature increased, and temperature equal to 31 °C or higher made a significant impact on reducing dengue spread. This suggests that high temperatures may be an effective way to reduce dengue transmission in Singapore.

Wang et al. [ 14 ] examined the effect of extreme temperature and rainfall on dengue infection in four Asian countries. They used data collected from 2012 to 2020. They found that extreme rainfall helps to reduce the spread of dengue whereas extreme temperature is associated with an increase in dengue infection. This suggests that while extreme rainfall may be beneficial in reducing dengue transmission, extreme temperatures may exacerbate dengue infection in these countries. Susilawaty et al. [ 15 ] investigated the relationship between weather variables and dengue incidence in Makassar, Indonesia. They used data collected from 2011 to 2017. They found that humidity had a strong relationship with dengue incidence, while temperature, wind velocity, and rainfall had a negative correlation with dengue incidence. This suggests that while humidity may be a key factor in dengue transmission in Makassar, temperature, wind velocity, and rainfall may be less important. Costa et al. [ 16 ] investigated the relationship between hydroclimatic variables and dengue outbreaks in dryland regions of Ceara, Brazil. The data collection period was from 2008 to 2018. They found that precipitation was not associated with dengue incidence, however, population density and extreme drought were strongly associated with dengue incidence. This suggests that while precipitation may not be a major factor in dengue transmission in dryland regions of Ceara, population density and extreme drought may play a significant role in dengue outbreaks.

While numerous studies have investigated the association between climate variables and dengue transmission, there is a noticeable gap in research that integrates demographic and environmental factors into the analysis, particularly in highly affected countries. Despite many literature on climate-dengue relationships, there remains a need for comprehensive studies that consider the relation between socioeconomic variables, environmental conditions, and dengue spread. Considering the research gap, this research aims to understand the relationship between demographic-environmental factors and the spread of dengue transmission, with a focus on countries that are highly affected by dengue. The use of statistical models and graphical techniques allows for a comprehensive analysis of the data to identify the most influential factors and determine the strength of their relationship with dengue transmission. This study holds significant importance, firstly, by examining the relationship between demographic-environmental factors and dengue transmission in highly affected countries, it addresses a critical gap in the existing literature, providing insights of dengue outbreaks. Secondly, the utilization of statistical models and graphical techniques enables a comprehensive analysis of the data, facilitating the identification of key factors and their importance in driving dengue transmission.

Data descriptions

This study is collecting a variety of data from 11 different countries that are considered to have high rates of dengue transmission. The data includes yearly dengue incidence, temperature (mean, minimum, and maximum), precipitation, total population, urban and rural population, and population density. This study is collecting data from Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Myanmar, and Vietnam. The selection of these countries for data collection in this study is justified by their significant burden of dengue fever, diverse geographical landscapes, and varying socioeconomic conditions. Moreover, the inclusion of these countries allows for the exploration of diverse climatic zones and population densities, thereby enabling a clear understanding of the contextual factors influencing dengue spread. The data collection period is from 2000 to 2021, which spans over two decades. The study is using two sources for data collection, Climate Change Knowledge Portal ( https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/ ) for climate-related data, and the World Bank website ( https://www.worldbank.org/en/home ) for population-related data. In addition to collecting data from the two sources previously mentioned, the study is also collecting the total number of yearly dengue cases for each country from the Ministry of Health of the corresponding countries, as well as from an article by Gan et al. [ 17 ]. Statistical analysis is being performed using R on the data from all 11 countries. The data is openly available in the study’s repository for anyone to access. Link: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25745295.v1

The response variable considered in our study is the number of dengue cases which is a count (discrete) variable in nature. We aim to explore how this response variable is affected by demographic and environmental factors, and this type of relationship can be statistically examined through several count regression models, most importantly Poisson, Negative binomial, zero inflated Poisson and zero inflated Negative binomial models under generalized linear model framework [ 18 ]. For a particular data set, suitable count regression models are selected based on the relationship of response variable mean and variance. For example, (i) Poisson regression can be used when mean and variance of the count response are equal, (ii) Negative binomial regression can be used in over dispersed count data (variance of the count response is larger than its mean), (iii) Zero inflated Poisson can be used when response consists of excessive zero count compare to the other counts but its mean and variance are the same and (iv) Zero inflated negative binomial can be used in case of excessive zero counts with over-dispersion. The response variable in our data set is over dispersed as its variance is 485002 times compared to its mean and no excessive zero (even other numbers) count is observed in the data. Therefore, Negative binomial regression model is chosen as a suitable count regression model to analyze the data considered in this paper. We also consider here Poisson regression model as a basic count regression model. PR model presumes that the response variable conforms to a Poisson distribution and establishes the average of the response variable as a function of explanatory variables. NBR model on the other hand, is used when the response variable is over-dispersed relative to a Poisson distribution and models the mean of the response variable as a function of predictor variables. Both models can be useful in understanding the relationship between predictor variables and the count of occurrences of an event.

One of the common phenomena for modeling count response data is overdispersion which arises due to the excess variation between response counts. The response variable, dengue-infected cases, considered in this study have excess variation. It also arises when the independence assumption of observations is violated and this can happen in clustered data. Standard errors of the estimates are underestimated due to the consequence of overdispersion which makes a variable to be a significant predictor when it is not actually significant. Therefore, overdispersion needs to be taken care of properly in analyzing count response.

NBR model is utilized to model count data that exhibit overdispersion, owing to this attribute. The negative binomial distribution approximates the Poisson distribution as a limiting case when s is large enough. Under NBR framework, the mean μ i is also connected with covariates via a log-link function like PR i.e.

Some of the covariates considered in our study like precipitation, total population, unban population and rural population have very higher values compared to the other covariates values such as mean temperature, min temperature, max temperature and population density. More specifically, the numerical values of mean temperature, min temperature and max temperature are limited to two digits before decimal while population density has three digits value. On the other hand, total population, urban population and rural population have values in 9 digits form while precipitation has 4 digits value. Therefore, scaling of the independent variable values differs drastically which causes numerical instability in the estimation process of the count regression model. We considered log transformation of precipitation, total population, unban population and rural population to make their values similar to other independent variables values which provides numerical stability in the estimation process.

By including climate variables, such as mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures and precipitation, as well as other variables like population demographics and population density, you can account for potential sources of variation in dengue incidence (DI). The presentation of descriptive statistics of these variables, such as mean, median, standard deviation, etc., provides an overview of the distribution of the data and helps to identify any patterns or trends in the data. The table is likely to provide a useful starting point for the analysis and modeling of the data.

In this study, climate variables, such as mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures and precipitation, as well as other variables like population demographics and population density are being considered. The presentation of descriptive statistics of these variables, such as mean, median, standard deviation, etc., provide an overview of the distribution of the data and helps to identify any patterns or trends in the data as shown in Table 1 . The average dengue incidence of 129038 cases is likely a sum of cases across all 11 countries, while the mean temperature (T mean ) of 24.75°C, minimum temperature (T min ) of 19.96°C, and maximum temperature (T max ) of 29.58°C give an indication of the average climate conditions in the study region. The population density of 263.73 people per square kilometer provides a measure of the degree of crowding in the study area and can help to identify areas with a high potential for the spread of infectious diseases like dengue.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.t001

Table 2 of the study presents the average number of dengue incidences per year over the periods 2000 to 2006, 2007 to 2014, and 2015 to 2021 as well as the percentage of increase or decrease of dengue cases over the period 2015 to 2021 compared to the period 2000 to 2006. The study states that in the time period of 2000 to 2006, 2007 to 2014, and 2015 to 2021, the highest and lowest number of yearly average dengue cases are observed in Brazil and Nepal respectively. The study notes that Nepal showed a particularly high increase in dengue incidence compared to any other country, as high as 100%. Furthermore, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh have also shown significant increases in dengue cases, with 95%, 88%, and 86% increases respectively. This is considered to be alarming for the South Asia region and the study suggests that global climate change is highly considered for such dengue outbreaks in South Asia. Additionally, the study finds that the percentage of dengue incidence rate is decreasing in Myanmar and Vietnam over time, however, the yearly average incidence is still extremely high in these countries. This is a concern for people living in those areas.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.t002

Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is an important step in the analysis of data and can help to identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data. The creation of a correlation plot that includes various elements such as histograms, density functions, smoothed regression lines, correlation coefficients, and their corresponding significance levels can provide useful information regarding the connections between the response variable and predictor variables. The EDA can also help to identify any outliers or anomalies in the data that may need to be further investigated or removed from the analysis. Fig 1 provides specific information on the infected cases, mean temperature, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, log( Precipitation ), log( Total population ), log( Urban ), log( Rural ), and population density variables, along with their corresponding significance levels. From the EDA, it is observed that the distribution (shape) of infected cases is negatively skewed while shape of the densities of the other explanatory variables are approximately bimodal (diagonal elements of Fig 1 ). Furthermore, negative effects of log( Precipitation ), log( Rural ), and population density on infected cases can be seen in simple smooth regression lines of infected cases on log( Precipitation ), infected cases on log( Rural ), and infected cases on population density respectively while other explanatory variables considered in this study have positive effects on infected cases. The relationship between infected cases and each explanatory variable observed in simple smoothed regression lines provides a rough justification about the potential explanatory variables in GLM but does not provide any conclusive decision about the statistical significance of explanatory variables. Furthermore, a very strong positive Pearson correlation coefficient can be seen between T mean and T min , T mean and T max while Tmean has a moderate positive Pearson correlation with log( Precipitation ), log( Total population ), log( Urban ). It was also noticeable that high positive correlation exists between the pairs ( Min temperature , Max temperature ), (log( Total population ), log( Urban )), (log( Total population ), log( Rural )). The existence of a strong correlation among predictors does not pose any hindrance to the application of GLM.

(Note: p < 0.1*, p < 0.05**, p < 0.01**).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.g001

From the summary statistics presented in Table 1 , it is observed that variance of the response variable (dengue infected cases) is 485002 times compared to its mean which indicates that the response variable is overdispersed. Therefore, overdispersion needs to be taken into account in the statistical modeling of dengue-infected cases. In this study, Poisson and negative binomial regression models were considered to analyze overdispersed dengue-infected cases, and different performance criteria of both the fitted models are presented in Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.t003

From Table 3 , it is observed that dispersion value for NBR model is 1.22 while it is 75715.79 for PR. Dispersion value close to 1 is desirable for any count regression model, and this happens when the count regression model captures overdispersion sufficiently in case of overdispersed count response modeling. Hence, it can be concluded that NBR model captured overdispersion very well compared to the PR model. Furthermore, the AIC and deviance values for PR and NBR model are 69984.23 and 16933275, and 23.75 and 288.65 respectively. Therefore, NBR model can be considered as a better model to analyze dengue-infected cases compared to PR model as far as AIC and deviance values are concerned. Interestingly, pseudo- R 2 value (0.71) for PR is higher than pseudo- R 2 value (0.556) obtained for NBR model. This (misleading results) could have happened as overdispersion was not properly addressed in the PR model.

Finally, NBR model was chosen as a better model to analyze dengue-infected cases over PR model based on the above performance comparison of PR and NBR models. Therefore, only regression outputs obtained from NBR model were considered to determine the significant predictors of dengue-infected cases which are presented in Table 4 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.t004

From Table 4 , it is observed that predictor variables such as T mean and T max , log( Precipitation ), log( Urban ), and population density have statistically significant effects on dengue incidence rate while T min , log( Rural ), and log(T otal population ) do not have statistically significant effects on dengue incidence rate. More specifically, the effects of log( Precipitation ) and population density on dengue incidence rate are statistically significant at 0.1% level ( p < .001) while the effects of T max and log( Urban ) on dengue incidence rate and the effect of T mean on dengue incidence rate are statistically significant at 0.6% and 0.3% levels ( p < .0055, p < .0012) and 5% level ( p < .0441) respectively. The quantity of IRR presented in column 4 of Table 4 quantifies the direction of the effect of significant predictors on dengue incidence rate numerically. For example, for a one-unit increase in T mean , the rate of dengue-infected cases increases by 2710%, with the remaining significant predictor variables values held constant. Like T mean , log( Urban ) has a positive effect on dengue infected cases which is increased by 442% due to one unit increase in log( Urban ) provided that other significant predictor variables values held constant.

On the other hand, the predictor variables T max , log( Precipitation ) and population density have negative effects on dengue incidence rate. For example, the expected number of dengue-infected cases decreases by 90.32% due to one unit increase in T max when the other significant predictors are held fixed. Similarly, the dengue cases are expected to decrease by 80.8% for a one-unit increase in log( Precipitation ) provided that other significant predictor variables are kept fixed. Finally, for each additional unit of population density, dengue cases are expected to decrease by 0.3% when other significant predictor variables are kept fixed.

Various perspectives can be used to assess the goodness of fit of a statistical model to a given dataset. For instance, Tables 3 and 4 illustrate how NBR model compares to PR model in representing the dengue dataset. Model efficiency criteria such as AIC, dispersion, deviance, p -value, and Pseudo-R 2 values are used for this purpose. However, the aforementioned analysis lacks exploration regarding whether the chosen model assumptions are satisfied and whether particular data points have an impact on parameter estimates. To address these issues, diagnostic plots for generalized linear models are considered, as presented in Figs 2 and 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.g002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.g003

Fig 2 illustrates the jackknife deviance residuals against the linear predictor in the top left panel and the normal QQ plots of the standardized deviance residuals in the top right panel. A well-fitted model is expected to have jackknife deviance residuals distributed evenly around a horizontal line without any distinct pattern, and standardized deviance residuals lined up well on the dotted line with an intercept of zero and a slope of one. The top left plot of Fig 2 indicates that jackknife deviance residuals are distributed roughly evenly around the horizontal line y = 0. However, in the top right plot, although most of the standardized deviance residuals fall on the dotted line, some deviate from it in both the left and right-tailed areas. Specifically, the distribution of standardized deviance residuals (sample quintiles) has lighter and heavier tails in the left and right-tailed areas, respectively, compared to the theoretical standard normal distribution. This symptom does not necessarily indicate a violation of the normality assumption, but observations for which standardized deviance residuals deviate from the dotted line may be a potential problem that requires further exploration.

The bottom left and right panels of Fig 2 display Cook statistics against standardized leverages and case number, respectively. The Cook statistic measures how much the parameter estimates change when a data point is removed from the calculation of fitting the regression model. Consequently, it is employed to identify influential observations. In the bottom left graph, two dotted lines are included at x = 2 p /( n − 2 p ), and y = 8/( n − 2 p ), where n represents the count of observations and p denotes the number of estimated parameters. Points above the horizontal line (shown in the right plot) may have a high influence on the model, while points to the right of the vertical line are considered high-leverage points.

The influence plot in Fig 3 reveals that observations 20 and 42 have large positive residuals, while observation 28 has a large negative residual. Additionally, observations 11 and 13 are identified as large leverage points. The combination of a data point’s leverage and residual determines its influence on a model, which can be studied using a standardized residual versus leverage plot.

The residual versus leverage plot in Fig 4 shows that observation 42 is located outside the Cook’s distance in the upper right corner (marked by a red dotted line), indicating it as an influential observation. Cook’s distance lines (red dotted lines) are barely visible in the residual versus leverage plot when there are no influential observations in the data. To quantify the effect of this influential observation on the model, the negative binomial regression model is fitted without observation 42. The output of this model shows that there are very slight changes in the regression coefficients, which can be ignored.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.g004

The study was carried out in 11 countries, and it has led to the identification of several factors that are associated with DI. The findings of the study suggest that particular environmental and demographic factors are essential in determining the occurrence of dengue. It is found that mean temperature, maximum temperature, urban population, precipitation, and population density are all associated with the incidence of dengue. In contrast, the study found that minimum temperature, total population, and rural population had no significant association with dengue incidence. Overall, the study highlights the complex interplay between environmental and demographic factors in determining the incidence of dengue. By identifying these key factors, policymakers and public health officials can develop targeted interventions to prevent and control the spread of dengue in high-risk areas.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes thrive in urban areas and are often found in and around human dwellings, making it easier for them to bite and infect people. When a mosquito bites an infected person, it can then become a carrier of the virus and spread the disease to other individuals it bites [ 21 ]. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to dengue transmission due to the high densities of people and mosquitoes [ 22 , 23 ]. The close proximity of people in urban areas means that the disease can spread rapidly from person to person, and the abundance of Aedes mosquitoes provides ample opportunities for the virus to be transmitted. In addition, urban areas have a high number of potential breeding sites for Aedes mosquitoes [ 22 , 23 ]. These breeding sites can include anything that holds stagnant water, such as discarded tires, buckets, and other containers. When stagnant water is present, it creates favorable conditions for Aedes mosquitoes to deposit their eggs, leading to a greater number of mosquitoes and an elevated probability of dengue transmission [ 22 , 23 ].

According to a study by Kolimenakis et al. [ 22 ], there is a robust association between the prevalence of dengue fever and urbanization in various countries. The investigation revealed that urban regions have around 63.3% of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes, thereby elevating the chances of dengue transmission. Additional research has also established a direct relationship between urbanization and the incidence of dengue fever [ 24 , 25 ]. These findings imply that urbanization plays a crucial role as a risk factor in the propagation of the disease. In our study, we also observed that an increase of one unit in log(Urban) results in a 442% increase in the number of dengue-infected cases, indicating a positive impact of urbanization. While it can be challenging to restrict the movement of people from rural areas to urban centers, the limited availability of facilities and resources in rural areas can contribute to the high density of urban populations. This further exacerbates the risk of dengue transmission, as it creates more opportunities for infected individuals to come into contact with Aedes mosquitoes and facilitate the spread of the disease. Overall, the combination of urbanization, mosquitoes, and the presence of potential breeding sites in urban areas creates a significant risk for the spread of dengue fever in urban populations and across various countries. Effective measures, such as mosquito control programs and public awareness campaigns, are necessary to prevent and control the spread of dengue fever in urban areas.

The Aedes mosquito thrives in warm and humid environments [ 26 ], with optimal temperatures for their development ranging from 26 to 32°C [ 26 ]. The rise in mosquito populations during the warm and wet seasons is known to contribute to an increase in dengue fever incidence [ 26 ]. Additionally, higher temperatures can speed the virus’s development within mosquitoes, resulting in a shorter incubation period and a higher chance of transmission [ 26 ]. The present study further supports this relationship, demonstrating a positive correlation between mean temperature and dengue fever incidence. Specifically, a one-unit increase in mean temperature is linked to a significant increase of 2710% in the rate of dengue cases, holding all other significant predictor variables constant. Research conducted in several regions of the world [ 27 – 29 ] has indicated that there is a direct relationship between the T mean and DI. This evidence suggests that as temperatures increase due to climate change, there may be a corresponding increase in dengue incidence in various parts of the world.

Heavy rainfall, particularly precipitation, can play a vital role in decreasing dengue incidence by flushing out mosquito breeding sites and larvae. When heavy rainfall occurs, it washes away standing water and disrupts breeding sites, ultimately reducing the mosquito population and decreasing the likelihood of dengue transmission. Additionally, heavy rainfall helps to decrease the ambient temperature, further reducing the mosquito population and the risk of dengue transmission. Various research studies including Roiz et al. [ 30 ], Dieng et al. [ 31 ], and Romiti et al. [ 32 ] have explained that precipitation has a negative effect on dengue spreading due to a decrease in the number of mosquito eggs. Our research also supports the concept that heavy rainfall can have a positive impact on reducing dengue incidence. We observed a negative correlation between log(precipitation) and the dengue incidence rate, indicating that as precipitation levels increase, the incidence of dengue decreases. Therefore, heavy rainfall may be a significant factor in reducing the incidence of dengue, as previously discussed.

Numerous studies suggest a positive correlation between population density and dengue fever incidence, though this relationship is dependent on various factors. However, Schmidt et al. [ 33 ] found that regions with high population densities did not experience severe dengue outbreaks and had a lower risk of such outbreaks. Araujoa et al. [ 34 ] also observed that higher population density regions had a lower incidence of dengue compared to low population density regions. Furthermore, Istiqamah et al. [ 35 ] reported that there is no significant association between population density and dengue incidence, suggesting that the severity of dengue outbreaks is not necessarily linked to higher human population densities. Our study reveals findings that are consistent with the previously cited studies, demonstrating a negative correlation between population density and dengue incidence. This suggests that regions with higher population densities may not necessarily experience more severe dengue outbreaks. Furthermore, the negative correlation observed between population density and dengue incidence in our study could be attributed to several factors. For instance, higher population densities may lead to greater awareness and access to healthcare resources, resulting in improved diagnosis and treatment of dengue cases [ 36 ]. Additionally, densely populated areas may be more likely to have effective vector control measures in place, which can help to limit the spread of dengue.

In this study, we analyzed data from 11 dengue-prone Asian countries between 2000 and 2021 to identify the environmental and demographic factors associated with dengue infection. The analysis revealed the following:

• The variance of dengue cases was 485002 times greater than its mean, indicating that the data was overdispersed.
• NBR model fit the data better than the PR model. Therefore, the significant factors affecting dengue cases were determined using the outputs obtained from the negative binomial regression model.
• T mean , T max , log( Precipitation ), log( Urban ), and population density have statistically significant effects on dengue incidence rate.

Our study’s findings are largely consistent with existing literature, except for the results related to population density. We attribute this inconsistency to the unavailability of information regarding factors such as individuals’ immunity levels, degree of awareness, and effectiveness of vector control measures in the study area, all of which are believed to influence the incidence of dengue. Unfortunately, these variables were not included in our dataset, limiting the scope of our study. To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the association between population density and dengue incidence, future research could overcome this limitation by considering these factors in their analysis.

There are numerous variables that cannot be analyzed because it is likely that this information is not available. Our study solely relies on secondary information, which may introduce biases in data collection. Only population-level information is analyzed, while individual-level data has not been utilized. Consequently, it is impossible to separate the biological factors that can influence the disease, as these factors cannot be included in this analysis.

Supporting information

S1 appendix..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305854.s001

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• 20. Akaike H. Information theory and an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In: Parzen E, Tanabe K, Kitagawa G. (eds.) Selected papers of Hirotugu Akaike. Springer Series in Statistics. Springer, New York. 1998;
• 21. CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on 3 May 2024. Link: https://www.cdc.gov/dengue/transmission/index.html
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Health Rounds: Benign mammography finding linked with heart disease

By Nancy Lapid

(Reuters) - Hello Health Rounds Readers! Today we report on studies that might lead to a closer look at mammography findings involving clogged arteries. We also feature a study that might lead to greater use of video visits by healthcare providers seeking to improve quality of life for patients near the end of life, and a review that takes a new look at the risks of treatment with a powerful blood cancer therapy.

Mammography finding in arteries could indicate heart disease

Calcium buildup in breast arteries detected by mammography usually is not a sign of cancer, but it might indicate a higher risk for heart disease, two research teams reported at the Menopause Society annual meeting in Chicago.

Following nearly 400 women for 18 years, one team found that atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease - clogged arteries limiting blood flow - was diagnosed in 23% of women with breast arterial calcifications, compared to 13.9% of those without.

"Prior research has already suggested this type of association," study leader Hannah Daley of Drexel University College of Medicine in Pennsylvania said in a statement. "Based on what we found, we believe the presence of breast arterial calcifications on a mammogram should be routinely reported."

Separately, researchers at Penn State College of Medicine in Pennsylvania reviewed data from nine previous studies involving nearly 47,000 women followed for nearly 12 years on average. They found that women with breast arterial calcification seen on mammography were at an increased risk of stroke, cardiovascular death, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and congestive heart failure.

"I think this study is important for primary care physicians, and also cardiologists, and really any clinician that looks at cardiovascular disease risk assessment," study leader Dr. Matthew Nudy said in a statement.

The information from these studies "reinforces that the risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women are different than for men," Dr. Stephanie Faubion, medical director for the Menopause Society, said in a statement.

Virtual palliative care visits prove helpful

Cancer patients who do not have access to in-person palliative care might benefit just as much from such care provided via video visits, according to a new study.

Palliative care focuses on providing relief from pain and other symptoms to improve the quality of life of patients with serious illnesses.

Across the United States, 1,250 patients recently diagnosed with advanced lung cancer were randomly assigned to receive early palliative care via video visits or in person, at least every four weeks.

Participants completed surveys at the start and then again every 12 weeks. Quality-of-life scores improved significantly in both groups and were equivalent at week 24, according to a study published in JAMA.

Satisfaction with care, anxiety and depression symptoms, use of approach-oriented or avoidant coping strategies, and perceptions of the primary goal of treatment and curability of their cancer were also similar between the groups.

Caregiver participation in palliative care visits was lower in the video group, but the groups did not differ in caregiver satisfaction with care, quality of life, mood symptoms or prognostic perceptions.

National guidelines in the United States recommend that palliative care be included in a patient's care from the time of diagnosis of advanced cancer, based on numerous clinical trials demonstrating its efficacy for improving quality of life, symptoms and other outcomes. But, the researchers noted, most patients and their families do not receive such care, in part because of the limited availability of specialty-trained clinicians.

"Many healthcare facilities now have the capacity to offer video visits," they wrote. "The present study adds critical evidence to support ongoing access to telehealth services, especially for vulnerable populations with serious illness."

No higher risk of second cancer found in CAR-T cell therapy

For blood cancer patients receiving CAR-T cell therapy, the risk of a second new malignancy is no higher than it would be after other standard treatments, according to a review of previous studies.

In CAR T cell therapy, a patient's own immune cells are altered so they will attack cancer cells. These T cells are extracted from the blood, genetically modified to fight the individual's cancer and then reinfused into the patient.

For the new study, researchers reviewed data on 5,517 participants in 18 clinical trials in the United States and other countries testing six CAR T-cell therapies: Bristol Myers Squibb's Abecma and Breyanzi, Johnson & Johnson's Carvykti, Novartis' Kymriah or Gilead Science's Tecartus or Yescarta.

After a median follow-up of 21.7 months, 5.8% of patients developed a second primary malignancy.

Among 1,253 participants in four studies that compared CAR T therapy with more traditional regimens, unrelated new cancers developed in 5% of CAR T recipients and in 4.9% of standard-of-care recipients, a difference that was not statistically significant, according to a report in Clinical Cancer Research.

Outcomes were similar regardless of cancer type or CAR T-cell product used.

Patients who had received at least three other treatments before CAR T had a significantly higher risk of second new cancers than patients who had received no more than two prior lines of therapy - possibly due to cumulative tissue damage caused by the multiple previous therapies, the researchers said.

CAR T cell therapy is the first in more than 20 years to show an overall survival benefit compared to the standard of care in the most common type of lymphoma seen in U.S. patients, study leader Dr. Kai Rejeski of Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York said in a statement.

The rate of second cancers was higher in studies with longer follow-up, perhaps reflecting the possibility that "more patients may be developing second primary malignancies because they are living long enough to do so," Rejeski said.

Overall, "these data do not suggest that there is an increased risk of second primary malignancies relative to other standard-of-care therapies," Rejeski said. "I worry that the warning labels may intimidate patients who receive this therapy, which may not be entirely founded."

In the United States and Europe, CAR T-cell labels must warn of a potential risk of a new, unrelated cancer arising after treatment, based on cases reported to the U.S Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency.

(Reporting by Nancy Lapid; editing by Will Dunham)

Qualitative Findings. Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants ...

Definition: Insights are focused explanations of opportunities, based on other user research and business context. While findings describe what is observed in the scope of a particular study or time frame of a live product, insights tie specific opportunities to specific user needs and they relate to valuable business objectives.

Report the relevant findings for each research question or hypothesis, focusing on how you analyzed them. ... The pretest mean was 29.00 with a standard deviation of 7.65, while the posttest mean was 26.50 with a standard deviation of 9.74 (Table 1). These results yield a significance level of .000, indicating a strong treatment effect (see ...

forth between the findings of your research and your own perspectives and understandings to make sense and meaning. Meaning can come from looking at differences and similari-ties, from inquiring into and interpreting causes, consequences, and relationships. Data analysis in qualitative research remains somewhat mysterious (Marshall & Rossman,

Generally, to ensure study trustworthiness, research should meet the following criteria: credibility, or confidence in the findings; dependability, or the consistency of the findings; confirmability, or the extent to which the findings are free from researchers' biases; and transferability, or how well the research may be applicable to ...

Rule 9: Report IDA findings in research papers. A clear and sufficient reporting of IDA findings in research papers is relevant for transparent and reproducible research. Yet, existing reporting guidelines need to be augmented to accommodate findings specific to initial data analyses . Importantly, IDA information that can influence the ...

The results chapter in a dissertation or thesis (or any formal academic research piece) is where you objectively and neutrally present the findings of your qualitative analysis (or analyses if you used multiple qualitative analysis methods). This chapter can sometimes be combined with the discussion chapter (where you interpret the data and ...

Reporting the findings. While the writing process for a systematic review is generally like writing any other kind of review, there are several aspects to note. In writing the systematic review you should provide an answer to the research question. Careful documentation of the methodology is important as it should outline the search process and ...

Research Summary. Definition: A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings.

The discussion section provides an analysis and interpretation of the findings, compares them with previous studies, identifies limitations, and suggests future directions for research. This section combines information from the preceding parts of your paper into a coherent story. By this point, the reader already knows why you did your study ...

INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...

Step 4: Create a research design. The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you'll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research. There are often many possible paths you can take to answering ...

Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle. Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels.

When to use thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you're trying to find out something about people's views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data - for example, interview transcripts, social media profiles, or survey responses. Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:

Step 1: Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study. The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will ...

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results. Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach. Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings. This approach can be used to highlight important findings.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.

Discussion/Conclusion Goal 2 Strategy: Relating to Expectations. Relating to expectations reasons about the researchers' anticipated or unanticipated findings and/or observations. You can use this strategy to point out expected or unexpected results, express your attitudes about the results, often concerning surprise or unsatisfactory findings, and connect findings to initial hypotheses (i.e ...

INITIAL FINDING definition | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples

Don't make the reader do the analytic work for you. Now, on to some specific ways to structure your findings section. 1). Tables. Tables can be used to give an overview of what you're about to present in your findings, including the themes, some supporting evidence, and the meaning/explanation of the theme.

Further, often the contribution of a qualitative case study research (QCSR) emerges from the 'extension of a theory' or 'developing deeper understanding—fresh meaning of a phenomenon'. However, the lack of knowledge on how to identify themes results in shallow findings with limited to no contribution towards literature.

7 CHAPTER 3 Summary of Initial Research Findings All projects between transportation agencies and railroads that necessitate access to railroad property, expansion into or over transportation agency right-of-way for railroad projects, or incurring or reimbursing of costs, will require some type of agreements between the two parties ...

Medical education offers the foundational base for future healthcare professionals, with basic sciences playing a pivotal role in providing essential knowledge and skills for clinical practice. However, the long-term retention and application of this knowledge in clinical practice remain a significant challenge. This systematic review synthesised global evidence from diverse studies on the ...

Our findings establish an initial knowledge base for implementation and future research on the effective integration of AI into K-12 mathematics classrooms. This study also focuses on the appropriateness across age, mathematical contents, and AI design factors is aimed at further advancing the judicious adoption and success of classroom AI ...

Initial study findings were previously published in the British Journal of Dermatology. National Eczema Association: www.nationaleczema.org (PRNewsfoto/National Eczema Association)

Methods In this research, Poisson regression (PR) and negative binomial regression (NBR) models are used to model count data and estimate the effect of different predictor variables on the outcome. Also, histogram plots and pairwise correlation plots are used to provide an initial overview of the distribution and relationship between the variables.

Howbout is all about finding time with your friends to catch up. The company is banking on the fact that some Gen Z users are very happy to share their entire calendar with their friends.

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.css-1c7en8u{font-size:clamp(1.375rem, 1.25rem + 0.3125vw, 3.125rem);line-height:1.1;margin-bottom:1rem;} GMT-Master II .css-1g7r01k{font-weight:300;font-size:clamp(0.875rem, 0.9375rem + 0.1563vw, 1.25rem);line-height:1.2;text-wrap:balance;}.css-1g7r01k span{display:block;} Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold Reference 126711CHNR

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In connection with the world

The Oyster Perpetual GMT-Master II in Oystersteel and Everose gold with a black dial and an Oyster bracelet.

24-hour rotatable bezel, innovative high-technology.

This model features a black dial and a two-colour Cerachrom bezel insert in brown and black ceramic. In addition to conventional hour, minute and seconds hands, the GMT-Master II features an arrow-tipped hand, which circles the dial once every 24 hours, as well as a bidirectional rotatable 24-hour graduated bezel.

The distinctively coloured 24-hour hand displays the “home” reference time in a first time zone which can be read on the graduations on the bezel. The traveller’s local time is easily set by “jumping” from hour to hour, thanks to an ingenious mechanism operated via the winding crown: the hour hand can be adjusted forwards or backwards independently of the minute and seconds hands. This allows travellers to adapt to their new time zone without affecting the precision of their timekeeping.

High legibility in all circumstances

Like all Rolex Professional watches, the GMT-Master II offers exceptional legibility in all circumstances, and especially in the dark, thanks to its Chromalight display.

The broad hands and hour markers in simple shapes – triangles, circles, rectangles – are filled with a luminescent material emitting a long-lasting glow.

Everose Rolesor

A meeting of two metals.

Gold is coveted for its lustre and nobility. Steel reinforces strength and reliability. Together, they harmoniously combine the best of their properties.

A true Rolex signature, Rolesor has featured on Rolex models since the early 1930s, and was trademarked as a name in 1933. It is one of the prominent pillars of the Oyster collection.

The Oyster bracelet

Alchemy of form and function.

The Oyster bracelet is a perfect alchemy of form and function, aesthetics and technology, designed to be both robust and comfortable. It is equipped with an Oysterlock folding clasp, which prevents accidental opening and the Easylink comfort extension link, also exclusive to Rolex.

This ingenious system allows the wearer to increase the bracelet length by approximately 5 mm, providing additional comfort in any circumstance.

More GMT-Master II technical details

Reference   126711CHNR

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Oyster, 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold

Oyster architecture

Monobloc middle case, screw-down case back and winding crown

Everose Rolesor - combination of Oystersteel and Everose gold

Bidirectional rotatable 24-hour graduated bezel. Two-colour brown and black Cerachrom insert in ceramic, moulded numerals and graduations

Winding crown

Screw-down, Triplock triple waterproofness system

Scratch-resistant sapphire, Cyclops lens over the date

Water resistance

Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet

Perpetual, mechanical, self-winding, GMT function

3285, Manufacture Rolex

-2/+2 sec/day, after casing

Centre hour, minute and seconds hands. 24-hour display. Second time zone with independent rapid-setting of the hour hand. Instantaneous date. Stop-seconds for precise time setting

Paramagnetic blue Parachrom hairspring. High-performance Paraflex shock absorbers

Bidirectional self-winding via Perpetual rotor

Power reserve

Approximately 70 hours

Oyster, three-piece solid links

Folding Oysterlock safety clasp with Easylink 5 mm comfort extension link

Highly legible Chromalight display with long-lasting blue luminescence

Certification

Superlative Chronometer (COSC + Rolex certification after casing)

Learn how to set the time and other functions of your Rolex watch by consulting our user guides.

GMT-Master II

Contact an Official Rolex Jeweler

Only official Rolex jewelers are allowed to sell and maintain a Rolex watch. With the necessary skills, technical know-how and special equipment, they guarantee the authenticity of each and every part of your Rolex and help you make the choice that will last a lifetime.

Clocks Rolex 40 mm, Oystersteel and Everose gold 126711CHNR-0002

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